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p. 2

TREATISE ON

ENGLISH PUNCTUATION; DESIGNED FOR

LETTER-WRITERS, AUTHORS, PRINTERS, AND

CORRECTORS OF THE PRESS ; AND FOR

_. THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES.

eMith an Apnendir, CONTAINING RULES ON THE USE OF CAPITALS, A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, HINTS ON THE PREPARATION OF COPY AND ON PROOF-READING, SPECIMEN OF PROOF-SHEET, ETO.

By JOHN - WILSON.

TWENTY-EIGHTH EDITION.

NEW YORK -:- CINCINNATI .:- CHICAGO: AMERICAN

BOOK

COMPANY.

p. 3

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by JOHN

WILSON,

‘

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

Gntbersitn Press ;

JOHN WILSON AND SON, CAMBRIDGE.

p. 4

PREFACE TO THE TWENTIETH EDITION.

In 1826 an edition of this work, designed solely for printers, was first published.

In 1850 the second edition appeared,

greatly enlarged, and designed for letter-writers, authors,

printers, and correctors of the press.

In 1855 the author, in his Preface to the third edition, says: ‘‘ In presenting anew the following treatise, the author

would say, that, agreeably to the admission contained in the

closing paragraph of the Preface to the second edition, he ~

has embraced the opportunity of making what is conceived to be further improvements, by changing occasionally the modes of expression, enlarging the remarks and exercises,

rewriting and extending the section on compound and de-

rivative words, drawing up a more copious list of abbreviations, offering to young authors some considerations on the preparation of ‘copy,’ and appending a full and minute Index.

He feels justified in affirming, that not only in its

present form, but in its past, this book is the most complete

of any on the subject that he has seen.” . And now, three years after the author's death, this edi-

tion — the twentieth — is offered to the public, in the hope that it may still continue to merit the approval awarded te former editions. CAMBRIDGE, Mass. 1871.

p. 6

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Tue work that follows is a new edition of one published by the writer in England, about six years ago, under the title of “ A Treatise on Grammatical Punctuation; the difference consisting, not in their fundamental principles, but in the mode in which these are stated, in the divisions of the subjects treated of, in the augmentation of the exercises, and in the insertion of matter which is entirely new.

—

The proper manner of using the book will depend altogether on the capabilities of the learner. If unversed in Punctuation, or but slightly acquainted with the art, it is recommended, that, after a careful study of Sect. II. of the “Introduction,” he confine his attention to the leading principles laid down in the definitions and rules, all of which are printed in a larger character, and may be readily seen; and also to their illustrations, which are given under

the head of “ Examples ” and of “ Oral Exercises,” —in that por-

tion which applies merely to the rules. When he has gone through this course, he will have been furnished with as much information as will enable him to comprehend the exceptions or the additional

principles contained in the “ Remarks,” and to explain or write and

punctuate the remaining or second series of exercises in accordance both with the rules and the remarks.

These modes of studying the book, it is conceived, may be advantageously adopted in schools, with more or less variation, to suit the capacity of each individual in a class. The Italic lines, under the heads termed “ Exercises,” are mere general directions,

which the teacher may modify according to his own taste and judgment. But, beyond these brief hints, the writer has not prescribed a*

p. 7

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

any questions for examination, because he thinks that such a procedure, common as it is in elementary books, either offers a premium

to sloth and ignorance on the part of an instructor, or implies an

insult to his understanding and his talents, as if he were less capable than an author of knowing what to ask of those under his charge.

Though written in a manner which specially adapts it to instruc- | tion in schools, the work is also designed for printers and private

students, all of whom must have some previous acquaintance with English literature; and also for young authors, who can have little

difficulty in mastering an art so intimately connected with their

_ tastes or profession.

For this class of students, the exercises termed

“ Oral’? will be found peculiarly serviceable; tending, as they do by a variety of examples, to impress on the mind the practical

applications of the rules and remarks to which they refer. At the request of friends, the writer has introduced into the

Appendix a short article on Proof-reading, the insertion of which will, he trusts, be found of some use to authors and printers, if not

to general readers. With respect to the mode in which the work has been executed, its author asks no indulgence but that of candor and good feeling.

He has ventured, as in the former edition, to call the book a “ Trea-

tise,”” because he professes to have gone somewhat thoroughly into the subject with which it deals; but he does not flatter himself, that he has cleared away every obstacle which has beset one small but

requisite pathway to literary excellence.

On the contrary, he feels

that in a production of this nature, which requires so much experience and accuracy, and for the preparation of which so little aid, comparatively speaking, can be derived from other writers, all is not yet effected that can be done to simplify, and to put on a firm basis, that despised but useful art, — the art of Punctuation. Boston, May, 1860.

p. 8

CONTENTS.

CHAP. I. — INTRODUCTION. Page

Suor. IL — Tue Importance AND Usrs or Correct Puno.« 2

TUATION

et we we we

eo eo

Szor. Il. — PLAN or THE WoRK, AND DEFINITIONS OF THE

ee ee ee

TERMS USED... . .

CHAP. Il.—~ THE GRAMMATICAL POINTS. Introductory Observations.

«©

......

SECT. I.—- THE

Remarks on the Use of the Comma

COMMA.

Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, connected by the

Conjunctions and, or, nor .

6 6 ee ee ww

ww 28

Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, not connected by a Conjunction.

_ Series of Words of the same Part of Speech Words or Phrases in Apposition

. -

6».

«+

«©

The Subject and the Predicate .

«©

Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses.

Parenthetical Phrases and Clauses.

Words or Phrases in Contrast

p. 9

vin

CONTENTS. Page.

Vocative Words, Phrases, and Clauses

. «©

0's

. e

Adjectival, Participial, and Absolute Phrases Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases

Phrases at the End of Sentences or Clauses

...

69 72

Inverted or Transposed Expressions...» . 2... .

One Clause depending on Another

......4..

Correlative Words, Phrases, and Clauses

. .

Phrases and Clauses in the same Construction

...

Clauses having a Verb understood

~~.

Numeral Figuresand Words

......

SECT. II.— THE

...

Clauses consisting of Short Quotations or Remarks

98 98

«©

104

108

+...

SEMICOLON.

A Sentence consisting of Two Conjoined Clauses

. .

118

116

A Series of Expressions having a Common Dependence.

Expressions divided into Simpler Parts.

Short Sentences slightly Connected

Lists of Words, Phrases, and Numbers .

...

2... .

...

120

«ee

125

128

129

SECT. III. — THE COLON. Remarks on the Use and Abuse of the Colon.

Two Clauses not joined by a Conjunction.

...

Conjoined Members of Sentences.

. ...

Quotations, Remarks, &c., formally Introduced The Chanting Service in the Liturgy

188 141

Concluding Remarks

SECT. IV.-—- THE

Complete and Independent Sentences

180

184

+...

........

Terms in the Rule of Three.

147

SAL

PERIOD.

Headings, Subheads, Phrases in Titlepages, &c..

142

p. 10

CONTENTS.

age

Names, Titles, and other Words, abbreviated. . . - + + + 148 Marks or Figures used instead of Words . - - - - + + ° 150 Letters used for Figuresor Words . - - +--+ + + + + 160

CHAP. Ill.— THE GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL POINTS.

Introduc tory Observations ° ° e e a .

° 6 e . *

153 :

SECT. I.— NOTES OF INTERROGATION AND a

EXCLAMATION.

Remarks on the Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation . . 164 Expressions in the Form of Questions . . - + + + + * » 155 Expressions indicating Passion or Emotion . - - - + + + 159

SECT. Il -——- MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. Observations on Parentheses,and Marks of Parenthesis . . . 167 Words thrown obliquely into the Body of a Sentence. . . - 168_

Remarks on the Use and Abuse of the Dash . . .« » «© Broken and Epigrammatic Sentences . « «+ + + + © A Concluding Clause on which other Expressions depend The Echo, or Words repeated Rhetorically . - - + + A Parenthesis coalescing with the Main Passage . . . Ellipsis of the Adverb “ Namely,” &. . . 2 - + + +

«+ . + . +

+ 174 * 176 - 178 + 182 - 186 « Jol

Subheads, &c., to Paragraphs . - + 2 + 6 st er es 194 Omission of Letters, Figures, or Words. . - - + + + + = 195

p. 11

CONTENTS.

CHAP. IV. — LETTER, SYLLABIC, AND

QUOTATION POINTS. Page

Introductory Observations

»«

-Elision of Letters, or Shortening of Words.

.....

198

The Genitive or Possessive Case

«©

204

«©

197

SECT. Il. — THE HYPHEN. Remarks on the Uses of the Hyphen. Compound Words

.....

208

»«

«©

209.

Prefixesin Derivative Words

»«

219

«©

The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Pro-

nunciation *

Derivation, or Meaning

«©

The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Form, SECT. III.——- MARKS

«©

224

225

QUOTATION.

Words borrowed from a Speaker or an Author

One Quotation within Another.

230

232

Extracts composed of Successive Paragraphs

228

CHAP. V. — MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. Brackets, or Crotchets

A Comma Inverted; Two Commas

«©

.......

285

The Index, or Hand; Three Stars; the Caret; the Brace Marks of Ellipsis; Leaders .

236

237 238

Accents; Marks of Quantity; the Cedilla: the Tilde oe ew

238

Marks of Reference.

240

p. 12

CONTENTS. CHAP. VI.— GENERAL EXERCISES.

Page.

;

Introductory Observations

Pride and Humility, by Thomas Brown

«+

«©

S4l

«©

242

«©

G44

Panegyric on England, by Edward Everett

246>

The Pen and the Press, by John Critchley Prince

247

«=

248

by Leigh Hunt Abou Ben Adhem,

A Taste for Reading, by George S. Hillard

Relative Perfection, by J ohn James Tayler . . . . . «+ 250 ee ee ee 251 Labor not Lost, by R. C. Trench . . . 1 2 .

262

The True Source of Reform, by E. H. Chapin

288

264

Ancient and Modern Writers, by Charles Sumner .

Great Men generally Good, by John Logan

APPENDIX. renner

«257

The First Word of a Book, Tract, &c. .

258

2. 2. -

1 ee

Usrs or CapiraL LETTERS

. .

The First Word aftera Full Point

Appellations of God and Christ

+ « 259

2...

261

Names of Persons, Places, &c..

«©

262

Nouns and Adjectives derived from Proper Names. Words of Primary Importance. . . «©. - «+

263

264

».

265

Titles of Honor and Respect

The Pronoun J, and the Interjection@ .

. .-...

Commencement of Linesin Verse

266

eee

267

«+

268

Prosopopceia, or Personification

Capitals used instead of Figures . . . Titlepages, Inscriptions, &e.

Quotations, Examples, &e. .

~ 266

p. 13

Page,

Iratic CHARACTERS...

1...

TERMS RELATING TO Books

we)

269

.....

«eo

270

Captions, Subheads, Sideheads, and Running Titles

270

Signatures.

......

Names of Various Sizes of Books

ABBREVIATIONS AND REPRESENTATIVE LETTERS

271

272

Various Modes of Forming Abbreviations.

Table of Abbreviations

ee o

«©

801

«©

«+

802

MEDICAL AND MATHEMATICAL Signs.

ASTRONOMICAL CHARACTERS.

«4

The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac

«©

802

The Planetary Signs

802

The Lunar Signs

808

6808

_ Aspects of the Planets

HINTS ON PREPARING COPY, AND ON READING Proors

808

EXPLANATION OF PROOF-MARKS

816

820

ct we

BOB.

SPECIMEN OF PROOF-8HHET

INDEX 2

p. 14

ENGLISH

PUNCTUATION.

CHAPTER IL.

INTRODUCTION. ceapamamameeneememaaeeal D

Snor. 1. — THe IMpoRTANCE AND UsEs or CoRREOT PUNCTUATION.

No one will hesitate to admit, that next in value to the capacity of discerning or discovering truth, and of feeling the blessed relations which we sustain to the Being who made us, and to our fellow-creatures, particularly those with whom we are more immediately connected, is the power by which intelligence and emotion are communicated from one mind to another. By it the great and the gifted of past times have bequeathed to us many a rich legacy of thought and deed; and by it those of the present either re-create the old materials,

or fashion new ones, for the delight and improvement of their own generation; and transmit to the future —

to beings yet unborn —their treasures of wisdom, of

genius, and of love. This power, it is needless to say, is language, oral and written, especially the latter.

But as oral speech has its tones and inflections, its

pauses and its emphases, and other variations of voice, 1

p. 15

INTRODUCTION.

to give greater expression to the thoughts which spoken words represent, and to produce on the mind of the hearer a more rapid and intense impression than lifeless enunciation could effect; so written or printed language is usually accompanied by marks or points, to enable the reader to comprehend at a glance the precise and deter-

minate sense of the author, —a sense which, without these marks, would in many instances be gathered only by an elaborate and painful process, and very often be

misunderstood.

It therefore obviously follows, that the

art which serves to elucidate the meaning of a writer,

to bring out his ideas with more facility, and to render his expressions a genuine transcript of the feelings and sentiments which he would convey to the hearts

and the minds of others, is entitled to no small degree

;

of attention.

Now, it is indisputable that Punctuation does conduce to make written language more effective, by exhibiting with greater precision and definiteness the ideas, feel-

ings, and emotions of an author, than could be accomplished by a mass of words, however well chosen, if

brought together without those peculiar marks which show the multifarious varieties of union or of separa-

tion existing in thought and expression.

For what is

Punctuation, and what its aim?

the

It is

art of

dividing a literary composition into sentences, and parts

of sentences, by means of points, for the purpose of exhibiting the various combinations, connections, and dependencies of words.

And what is this process but

a means of facilitating that analysis and combination which must be

made, consciously or unconsciously,

before we can penetrate to the very core of an author’s

p. 16

THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION.

thoughts, and appropriate them as food for the life and

growth of our own minds?

We would not overrate the importance of Punctua-

tion, or deny that many subjects are worthy of a higher regard, and have a more immediate and vital influence on the well-being of society. But we would emphatically say, that this subject ought to be understood by

all who are led, by the bent of their tastes, the force of their genius, or their condition in life, to enter upon any

of the walks of literature, whether they would tread an humble and a beaten track, or wander into paths adorned

by flowers and fruit. It is related to philology and metaphysics, and indeed, more or less, to every science or art communicated by the instrumentality of written language. It is intimately connected with the principles of grammar; subservient to the purposes of syntax; essential to the clearing-up of ambiguities, which so

often obscure composition; and useful to the more ready understanding even of those sentences whose construction is not liable to the charge of obscurity. By

the omission or the improper insertion of points, not only

would the beauties and elegances of literature, but even its advantages, be faintly discerned and enjoyed, except

by the most attentive readers, or by men of superior taste and information: the sense of even the more simple and familiar class of productions -—— such as the narratle be liable to be — would tive, the essay, or the epis

misapprehended, or, at least, to be imperfectly under-

Indeed, the perusal of a single page of any work will bear testimony to the comparative value of a just punctuation. Nay, scarcely can a sentence be perused with satisfaction or interest, unless pointed with

stood.

p. 17

INTRODUCTION.

some degree of accuracy.

The well-known speech of

Norval, for instance, in the tragedy of “ Douglas,” may, by an erroneous use of the pauses, be delivered in such

a manner as to pervert or destroy the meaning ; as, — ‘* My name is Norval on the Grampian hills. My father feeds his flock a frugal swain; Whose constant cares were to increase his store.

We fought and conquered ere a sword was drawn.

An arrow from my bow, had pierced their chief Who wore that day the arms which now I wear.”

But the insertion of the right stops will restore the sense of these passages, and render them conformable to the conceptions of the dramatist :— “My name is Norval.

On the Grampian hills

My father feeds his flock; a frugal swain,

Whose constant cares were to increase his store.

We fought and conquered. Ere a sword was drawn, An arrow from my bow had pierced their chief,

Who wore, that day, the arms which now I wear.” *

Notwithstanding, however, its utility, Punctuation| has not received that attention which its importance

demands.

Considered merely as the plaything of the

pedant, or as the peculiar function of the printer, it is

often neglected or perverted by those who have occasion to present to the eye either their own thoughts or the thoughts of others.

The man of science, the mental

philosopher, and the philologist seem to regard it as too * In the note at the end of this section, page 18, will be found a few other

instances of erroneous pointing, which, though in their nature sufficiently

ludicrous, show in a forcible manner the necessity of paying a due regard to Many happy illustrations of the importance of correct marks

punctuation.

may also be seen in Day’s valuable little work, entitled “ Punctuation reduced to a System,” pp. 38-45.

p. 18

THE

IMPORTANCE

PUNCTUATION.

trifling, amid their grander researches into the laws of the universe, the internal operations of the human mind, and its external workings.by means of language.

The

grammarian passes it by altogether unheeded, or lays

down a few general and abstract principles; leaving the pupil to surmount the difficulties of the art as well as

he may,

The lawyer engrosses in a character which

is perfectly legible; but, by its deficiency in sentential marks, it often proves, like the laws of which he is the expounder, “ gloriously uncertain” as to the meaning intended to be expressed.

The painter, the engraver,

and the lithographer appear to set all rules at defiance, by either omitting the points or misplacing them, when

required in certain departments of their work.

The let-

ter-writer, with his incessant and indiscriminate dashes, puts his friend, his beloved one, his agent, or his employer, to a dttle more trouble, in conning over his epistle, than is absolutely necessary.

Even the author

-— who, of all writers, ought to be the most accurate — not unfrequently puts his manuscript into the printer’s

hands, either destitute of grammatical points, or so badly punctuated as to create a needless loss of time te

the compositor. But though an acquaintance with the principles of the art in question has been deemed the peculiar province

of the printer, who might therefore be expected to have

the requisite qualifications for the performance of his

task; yet it must be admitted, that from the press are issued many books,

grossly erroneous

sentential

marks; and perhaps not a few, which, though distinguished for elegance of style, accuracy of orthography,

or beauty of printing, are unworthy of being held up

p. 19

INTRODUCTION.

as models of good taste and judgment in the use of points. It is a fact well known to those connected with

the press, that compositors in general have a very deficient knowledge of Punctuation, considered as a

branch of science; and that they acquire what they do know of it as an art, chiefly by mechanical habit, or by the correction of innumerable blunders, marked on the proof-sheets.

To make these observations, however, without erant-

ing many exceptions, would savor more of the petulance of presumption than of the candor of true criticism. There are numerous masterpieces of composition, in

which the writer, the compositor, and the corrector of the press, have, either separately or together, inserted points with taste and propriety.

But enough has been said to demonstrate the necessity for an increased attention to the subject, and to prove a very obvious, though not an acknowledged, truth, that the principles of Punctuation must be duly learned,

before they can be understood, or brought into systematic and perfect use.

The question, then, will naturally

arise, Howis the desired improvement to be effected ?

how are the theory and practice of the art to be attained? We answer, By the most simple means; by the very means which are so well adapted to other subjects of learning. Let Punctuation form a branch of academi-

cal instruction; let it be studied, after a competent knowledge of English etymology and syntax has been acquired; let the rules be thoroughly comprehended by the pupil, —be explained to him, if necessary, in the

teacher’s language, and re-explained by himself in his own words. Let him also write copious exercises, in

p. 20

THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION.

; order to bring into further play his judgment and taste and let him present to his teacher these trials of his skill, to be examined and approved or corrected. By this means will he soon be capable of so punctuating

his own compositions as to be read by others with ease, pleasure, and advantage.

This is an age of authors, as well as of readers. Young aspirants after fame, some of them of considerable merit, meet us at every step, and in every department

of literature.

But surely, if they are capable of enlight-

ening the world by their wisdom, or dazzling it by their genius, they can have no difficulty in writing so as to be

understood.

If they have thoughts worthy of being

communicated through the agency of the pen and the press, they surely cannot with justice regard it as any

degradation of their powers to submit to the task of indicating, as accurately as possible, what they do really

intend to say. If there is beauty in their style; if there is pathos in their sentiments ; if there is moral and intel- . lectual vigor in the thoughts that burn for utterance; if their discourse is calculated to refine the taste, to improve the heart, and ennoble the mind, of the reader, — surely |

they should be careful that that beauty be not marred, that that pathos be not unfelt, that that vigor be not weakened, that that discourse be not shorn of half its

power over the character and happiness of others, from the petty motive of saving themselves the trouble of learning what, of all men, from the very nature of their

pursuits, they are the best able and most bound to learn. Besides, it is worthy of remark, that, by habituating themselves to the practice of pointing, their attention

will naturally be directed to clearness of thought, and

p. 21

INTRODUCTION.

accuracy of expression.

They will be more apt to

regard words as but of little value, except as representatives of ideas, and as an instrument by which these

may gain access to the human soul.

If involved in the

difficulty of punctuating a badly formed sentence, such

as the following, “ God heapeth favors on his servants ever liberal and faithful,” — supposing this to imply that the Divine Being is ever liberal and faithful,

— they

will almost necessarily be led to reconstruct it, that

they may rid themselves of their perplexity, and leave no doubt as to the sense meant to be conveyed; for,

beyond all question, facility in punctuation is generally in proportion to the perspicuity and the good arrange-

ment of words.

Let authors, therefore, turn a little of

their attention to the elements of this art, trifling and

undignified as it may seem to be.

Let them not trans-

fer to their printer that department of duty which as authors it is their own province to fill.

With some few

boasted exceptions, no doubt much overrated, neither compositors nor correctors of the press are immaculate; for they do not understand all the subjects treated of in

books, and cannot with accuracy punctuate what they

do not comprehend. It was in bygone times a preliminary requisite, that. printers should be acquainted with what are termed the

learned languages.

But though, in this age of a more

general and superficial literature, a profound knowledge of Hebrew points, Greek accents, and Latin quantities, is no longer required, it is necessary that compositors

be acquainted with the principles of their native tongue,

and with the functions of the peculiar marks used for setting off sentences, clauses, and phrases.

Were every

p. 22

THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION.

author to write his work in a fair, legible character, and so punctuate his language as to convey the sense clearly and correctly, then might compositors act as

mere machines, and “follow” their “copy.”

But, until

writers for the press condescend to use the stops system-

atically and accurately, the humble workmen who put

together the world-enlightening types must be more than unconscious machines: they must, to some degree, enter into the conceptions of those on whose works they are

employed, and develop the sense of their manuscripts, with the greatest possible discrimination, by the help

and service of the poor, despised, but useful handmaids, —— the commas, the semicolons, and other little points.

We know well the feeling which very naturally and properly exists in the minds of compositors, that the “ copy ” put into their hands should be prepared with an accuracy

which would preclude the necessity, on their part, of losing time by pondering over the manuscript in order

to render it intelligible to the reading public.

But this

we know also, that, in the actual state of things, the time thus apparently lost is, when employed aright, a com-

parative gain, by reason of the far greater consumption

of unprofitable labor in the insertion and extraction of points, after the proof-sheet has been returned by the

corrector of the press.

If the manuscript be defective

or erroneous in its sentential marks, the compositor must either take a little trouble in pointing it himself, or have it done for him afterwards by the proof-reader, to the serious diminution of his professional character, his good

temper, and his weekly wages.

But, further, we would

ask, Is not the operative who comprehends the principles of his calling, — who really knows what he is about, —

p. 23

INTRODUCTION.

a, happier and a nobler being than he who works at mere

random, and stumbles at every petty obstruction in his

way? Does not his daily toil become a pleasure, when it brings into play the exercise of a fine taste and a cultivated understanding? Do not his very difficulties become a source of satisfaction, when he himself can solve them, without being forced for ever to ask the aid

of his fellow-workmen, or to submit to the painful pro-

cess of undoing what he has already done, — of altering

and improving what he has ignorantly and blunderingly executed? Do not, indeed, these difficulties become less and less, the more frequently he is successful in removing them? Does he not, by his endeavors to

perform his work in a skilful manner, acquire habits of discrimination, that will enable him, in cases at which others would fret and foam or idly stand, to see, as it

were intuitively, the very thing required, and the mode

in which it should be done? These questions may be asked in relation to manual labor of any kind. They may be asked, too, in respect to all the branches of But work in which a compositor may be engaged. they are put here chiefly in reference to his knowledge and appliance of the art of Punctuation; and we feel

assured, that, if desirous of being able to insert points

with skill and propriety, he will also aim to perform

well all the duties pertaining to his sphere of toil. If,

therefore, the compositor would lose as little as possible ‘of that time which.-is so valuable to him; if he would have at his command greater pecuniary resources than he can have by ignorance of his art, or by habits of carelessness; if, by the exercise of his intellectual powers, he would deprive physical toil of no small share

p. 24

THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION.

of its pain or lassitude, —let him, if now ignoraut of the subject, never rest contented till he is able both to understand the principles on which Punctuation is based, and to bring them into full practice.

- The remarks just made have the strongest claim on

the attention of youths learning the art of type-setting; many of whom, stimulated by a love of change or by false views of independence, soon break loose from

those steady and regular habits which are necessary

for mastering the difficulties of any occupation; moving about from one employer to another, without having a disposition or sufficient time to attain a knowledge even of the first principles of the craft by which they are to earn a living. But if desirous of perfecting themselves in the various branches of typography, one of which we

have shown to be the art of Punctuation, it is of the greatest moment that they resolve to remain with a person whom they can regard as a friend as well as an employer; and receive from him, or at their leisure

hours from the study of books designed for the purpose, such instruction as will conduce to their improvement, and render them, when of age, competent to discharge, with honor to themselves and with satisfaction to others, the duties pertaining to their profession. If a knowledge of Punctuation is admitted to be requisite to the setter of types, there will be the utmost

reason for regarding it as indispensable to a reader of proof-sheets. Besides the multiform duties devolving

on or expected from him,—of correcting and improving the work of compositors, which is seldom, if ever, a faithful representation of the “copy ;” of rectifying the "orthography of inexperienced writers, and drawing

p. 25

INTRODUCTION.

the attention of others to errors in grammar and construction, into which the most accurate will sometimes fall, — the professional corrector is generally required, in the existing statesof authorship, to devote a great

part of his attention to the proper insertion of points, and thus to present to the public eye in a readable condition what would otherwise be an ill-digested mass of

letters and words.

When it is considered that he has

not unfrequently to perform this task amid doubts and

difficulties arising from manuscript almost illegible, it

will be seen how necessary it is for correctors of the press to possess that kind of knowledge which is so

easily within their reach, and which at present forms an essential and a peculiar feature of their calling, — an

accurate knowledge of the theory and practice of Punctuation.

It would not be right to expect from them,

even if they were better remunerated, perfect accuracy in their work; but, so long as they hold so responsible

a situation, their ignorance of this branch of their profession should be regarded as inexcusable. It may be, and has been, objected to the study of this art, that it is not subject to any fixed or determinate

principles; that scarcely two writers follow the same mode of punctuating sentences.

Where one author or

printer uses a comma, another would insert a semi-

colon; and, where one thinks a semicolon ought to be employed, another prefers a colon, if nota comma.

One

teacher embarrasses the learner with an additional pause

(the semicomma), by giving it “a local habitation and a name;” while a different one discards the colon alto-

gether as a useless point.

Some grammarians would

p. 26

THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION.

unfeelingly lop off the dash, as an excrescence on a

printed leaf; but others, again, are so partial to its

form and use as to call in its aid on every possible occasion.

The objection has, on purpose, been strongly stated. But might not similar objections be adduced against the orthography, the etymology, and the syntax of the English language; against, indeed, the general principles of English Grammar? Might it not be demonstrated, that grammarians and lexicographers differ in spelling, in pronunciation, in the classification of the parts of speech, in modes of derivation and of construction, and in the position of relatives and adverbs? Might not a plausible treatise be written against grammatical prin— as plausible, but just as illogical and unconciples, vincing, as are the common and startling objections

against a system of Punctuation?

Might it not be

shown, that Johnson and Lowth, Blair, Murray, and

Crombie, have attacked the dicta of others, and have

had their own attacked in turn? Might it not be proved,

that kings and queens, statesmen and historians, poets and essayists, nay, even professed grammarians, have written false English, and violated the most generally acknowledged canons of syntax? But surely it would not be a fair conclusion to draw, from this diversity of opinion and from the employment of inelegant or incongruous English, that there are no determinate principles in the language; that there is no authority to which an appeal can be made; that authors may send forth their

compositions into the world, without any regard whatever to law or usage. Neither is it, we contend, a legitimate conclusion, that, because some writers dis

p. 27

INTRODUCTION.

agree in their system of pauses, and others point their works at random, therefore Punctuation is too trifling ta.

demand serious attention, — too unsettled to be treated as a branch of science, or practised withany degree of

uniformity as an art. The writer, then, of the present work can have no

hesitation in asserting, that the art of Punctuation is not more varied or changeable in its character than that of

composition ; and that its essentzal principles are as fixed and determinate as those canons in syntax, which, though

sometimes violated by our best authors, are universally

acknowledged to be indisputable.

Diversities in the

application of these principles will no more prove that | modes of punctuating sentences are altogether arbitrary,

than diversities in styles of composition will demonstrate that the labors of grammarians to ascertain the laws of

language must go for nought, and that every writer may take whatever liberties he chooses, in opposition to

reputable usage.

As various modes of expressing a

thought may be justifiably used, when they do not affect the principles of grammar; though, as respects beauty,

elegance, or force, one mode may be preferable to another: so also different methods of pointing a sentence may be allowable, when they do not violate the fundamental laws of Punctuation; though they may be

objectionable or otherwise, just as they are less or more calculated to please the eye, and bring out the sense of the passage.

Perhaps one reason why Punctuation has been generally undervalued or neglected is, that grammarians have

devoted so little of their attention to the subject.

The

books, too, professedly written to elucidate its principles,

p. 28

THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. _— 1d

are, so far as have been observed by the writer of the present work, deficient either in an explanation of exceptions and difficulties; in examples and exercises5

or in rules and remarks, illustrative of the diversified

functions of the notes of interrogation and exclamation, the marks of parenthesis, the dash, the apostrophe, the hyphen,.and the quotation-marks. For though these may be regarded as minor points, when compared to others of a more grammatical nature, yet they occur so frequently that no work on Punctuation which passes them over with only a few brief and. hasty remarks can be considered practically and generally useful. Another cause of the neglect and misapprehension to which correct Punctuation is subject, arises probably from the false light in which it is regarded. Many persons seem to consider pointass being the representatives only of rhetorical pauses; as showing merely those places, in the utterance of a composition, at which time

for breathing is required; as indicating the definite pro-

portions of the stops made in reading aloud. Hence not a few writers and authors point their manuscript exactly as they would recite it, in accordance with their power of enunciation, with the quickness or slowness of their perceptions, or with their particular views as to the influence of pauses on the minds of their hearers. Elocutionists themselves disagree in respect to the precise cessations of the voice which should be made in delivery. Granting, however, that there were no differences of opinion on this subject, and that all good speakers would make the same pauses in the reading of any. given dis-

course, it might even then be easily shown, that the points

in common use would not be sufficient for rhetorical

p. 29

INTRODUCTION.

purposes; and that, if thus employed, they would tend, by the necessity of perpetually repeating them, and the consequent minute separations of words and phrases,

rather to perplex the judgment of the reader, than to facilitate his comprehension of the writer’s meaning. Let us suppose, for instance, that the following passage were so punctuated as to correspond in some measure with the peculiar notation adopted by Mr. Vandenhoff,

in his excellent work on the “ Art of Elocution,” pp. 73, 74, and with the real pauses demanded by an accurate and effective delivery, it would stand thus :— “ Men of superior genius; while they see the rest of mankind, painfully struggling, to comprehend obvious truths; glance, themselves, through the most remote consequences; like lightning, through a path, that cannot be traced; they see the beauties of nature, with light and warmth, and paint

them forcibly, without effort; as the morning sun, does the scenes he rises upon; and, in several instances, communicate to objects, a morning freshness, and unaccountable lustre, that is not seen in the creations of nature. The poet, the statuary, the painter, have produced images, that left nature far behind.”

But let the same sentence be punctuated by the rules

of grammar, and not by those of rhetoric, and with the sole view of indicating the sense of the passage, it would

appear as follows: — ‘© Men of superior genius, while they see the rest of mankind painfully struggling to comprehend obvious truths, glance themselves through the most

remote consequences, like lightning through a path that cannot be traced. They see the beauties of nature with light and warmth, and paint them for-

eibly without effort, as the morning sun does the scenes he rises upon; and,

in several instances, communicate to objects a morning freshness and unaccountable lustre that is not seen in the creations of nature.

The poet, the

statuary, the painter, have produced imaes that left nature far behind.”

By comparing the two modes of punctuation adopted in the passage under notice, —namely, the rhetorical or

p. 30

THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION.

close, and the grammatical or free, — it will be obvious,

that, while the latter tends to elucidate the aim of the writer, and to some extent assist the delivery, the former throws nothing but obscurity on his meauing; and, though showing the various pauses of the voice with

ereater accuracy, imparts no information whatever on matters which in delivery are as important, — the inflections, the intonations, the emphases, the calm, equable flow, or the wild torrent, of a good reader or an eloquent speaker.

That grammatical and rhetorical punctuation are not

one and the same, is acknowledged by the best elocutionists. Thus the writer just quoted says,* that “the grammatical pauses, which are addressed to the eye of the reader, are insufficient for the speaker, who addresses himself to the understanding ‘through the porches of the ear”... We have, therefore, rhetorical pauses, which are independent of, though consistent with and assistant to, the grammatical pauses.”

It must, however, be admitted that some of the points — namely, the mark of admiration and of exclamation, the parenthesis, and the dash — partake more of a rhetorical character than the common and principal. points; and in this light we will consider them in the - following pages. But, on the whole, it will be found that the art of Punctuation is founded rather on gram-

mar than on rhetoric; that its chief aim is to unfoid | the meaning of sentences, with the least trouble to the reader; and that it aids the delivery, only in so far as it tends to bring out the sense of the writer to the best

advantage. * «© Art of Elocution,” p. 68. 2

p. 31

INTRODUCTION.

NOTES ILLUSTRATING THE VALUE OF CORRECT PUNCTUATION. er.

1. The following request is said to have been made at church: “ A sailor going to sea, his wife desires the prayers of the congregation

for his safety.”’

But, by an unhappy transposition of the comma,

the note was thus read: “ A sailor, going to see his wife, desires the prayers of the congregation for his safety.”

2. A blacksmith, passing by a hair-dresser’s shop, observed in the window an unpointed placard, which he read as follows: — “ What do you think? — I'll shave you for nothing, And give you some drink.”

The son of Vulcan, with a huge black beard on his chin and a little

spark in his throat, considered the opportunity too good to be lost.

He accordingly entered; and, after the operation had been duly performed, asked, with the utmost sang froid, for the liquor. But the shaver of beards demanded payment; when the smith, in a stentorian voice, referred him to his own placard, which the barber very goodhumoredly produced, and read thus: — ‘What! do you think

I’ll shave you for nothing,

And give you some drink? ”’

8. Another example of the ludicrous will tend still better to show

the value of just punctuation: —

“ Bvery lady in this land

Hath twenty nails upon each hand;

Five and twenty on hands and feet. And this is true, without deceit.”

If the present points be removed, and others inserted as follow the true meaning of the passage will at once appear: — “ Every lady in this land

Hath twenty nails: upon each hand Five; and twenty on hands and feet. And this is true, without deceit.”

p. 32

PLAN OF THE WORK. —

Stor. II.

— PLan oF THE WORK, AND DEFINITIONS oF THE TERMS USED.

In the preceding section, Punctuation was defined to

be the art of dividing a written or printed discourse into sentences, and parts of sentences, by means of certain marks called points, for the purpose of exhibiting the various combinations, connections, and dependencies of words. Its uses also were found to consist primarily in developing, with as much clearness as possible, the sense and the grammatical constructions of a composition; and secondarily in showing, to some extent, the various pauses which are requisite for an accurate reading or delivery.

We now proceed to enter on the practical mode of attaining the information required; and, for the sake of order and of clearness of conception, it is proposed to regard the subject as separable into branches. We will treat, in the first place, of the marks pertaining to — SENTENCES, which may be divided into two kinds, the common or principal points, which are chiefly of a grammatical nature; and the less common but equally necessary points, which, occurring as they often do in animated composition, and being used for the twofold purpose of bringing out the sense and aiding the deli-

very, are entitled to be spoken of as both grammatical and rhetorical.

We will, lastly, speak of other marks,

which either bear a more intimate relation to LETTERS

and SYLLABLES than to words and sentences, or are of a varied and mixed character; and hence these may

p. 33

INTRODUCTION.

be termed letter, syllabic, quotation, and miscellaneous points.

Before, however, commencing the study of the laws

which regulate the use of these marks, the learner

should know at least as much of grammar as will enable him to distinguish, with tolerable accuracy, the different parts of speech into which language is resolvable.

Be-

sides this, it is essential that he be in some measure acquainted with the various kinds of sentences, their

usual constructions, and the mode in which they may be analyzed into their component parts.

Taking, there-

fore, for granted that he is not entirely ignorant of the principles of the English language, we will intrude into

the province of the grammarian, only so far as may be necessary for the student to form correct notions of the

meaning of a few terms, relating to sentences, which will frequently occur in the rules and remarks, and without a due knowledge of which he would be unable fully to comprehend the laws of Punctuation.

The

terms alluded to, then, are defined and illustrated as

follow: — DEFINITIONS.

I. A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words, so arranged as to form

a proposition, or two or more related propositions; making, directly or indirectly, complete sense.

IJ. A Simple SENTENCE expresses only a simple proposition.

consists of one nominative, subject, or thing spoken of, and of a single predicate, or affirmation concerning the subject; as,— 1. Calumny | destroys reputation. 2. The Creator | is good. 3. Kings | reign.

In these propositions, the words that precede the perpendicular:

lines are the subjects or nominatives, and those that follow are the

predicates.

p. 34

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS.

A logician would define a proposition by stating it to be a sentence consisting of a subject; of the copula, or sign of predication; and of the predicate. But the explanation given will be found sufficiently correct for grammatical purposes.

Ill. A ComrounD SENTENCE consists of two or more simple sentences in combination, and therefore contains more than one nomi-

native and finite verb, either expressed or understood; as, —

1. Virtue refines the affections; but vice debases them. 2. To err is human; to forgive, divine. 8. Age, though it lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our desire of living.

That these sentences are compound will be seen at once by resolving each into two simple sentences: “ Virtue refines the affections. Vice, on the other hand, debases the affections.” —‘“ To err is human. To

forgive is divine.” —“ Age lessens the enjoyment of life.

ever, increases our desire of living.”

It, how-

IV. MemsBerrs.— When a sentence consists of several clauses, admitting of a union of some and a separation of others, those which are combined may together be called members; as, —

The ox knoweth his owner, | and the ass his master’s crib: || but Israel

doth not know; | my people do not consider.

In this example there are four clauses: the first two forming one member; the latter two, another member.

In many books, however, the word member is used in its primary |

and more extensive sense, as denoting any portion of a sentence, whether a single clause, a phrase, or a word.

Vv. A CLAvsE is a simple sentence, or part of a sentence, united to another, and contains a nominative and a finite verb, either ex-

GO bo el

pressed or understood; as, —

. That high moral excellence is true greatness | cannot be denied. . Candor is a quality | which all admire. . Though he slay me, | yet will I trust in him. —

. The smile of gayety may be assumed, | while the heart aches within. . Gentleness often disarms the fierce, | and melts the stubborn.

When the subject of a proposition is itself a sentence, or contains 4 finite verb, as in No. 1, above, it is called a nominative clause; when a clause begins with a relative pronoun, as the last in No. 2, it is termed a relative clause; when clauses are introduced by correspond-

p. 35

INTRODUCTION.

ing words, as “ though” and “ yet” in No. 3, they are named correla tiwe; when one clause is subject to another for completeness of sense, as those in No. 4, they are called dependent; und when one is simply added to another, co-ordinate or consecutive clauses, as exemplified in No. 5.

VI. A Purass consists of at least two words, being a form of expression, or part of a sentence, which has no finite verb, expressed or understood; and which therefore does not of itself make any assertion, or form complete sense; as, —

1. In haste.

2. Of all our seuses. 8. By infinite wisdom.

4. Awkward in person. 5. Studious of praise. 6 Useful to artists.

7.’ To confess the truth.

8. Law and order. 9. A man of wisdom.

In works on grammar, these and similar expressions are usually called imperfect phrases; but the definition just given will preclude the necessity of using the epithet. An article or any unemphatic word and a noun, or the simple infinitive, —as, a book, the man, to love, — will, to avoid circumlocution, be treated in the following pages, not

as a phrase, but as a word. A nominative phrase consists of several words, standing as the

subject of a proposition. An adjectival, a participial, a prepositional phrase, are phrases severally beginning with an adjective, a participle, or a preposition. Those phrases, however, which, though commencing with a preposition, are used instead of single adverbs, are commonly spoken of as adverbial phrases; as, “ Jn haste,”’ for hastily.

VII. Terms and Expresstons. — To avoid repetition, a word or a phrase is sometimes called a term; and a phrase or a clause, an expression.

VIII. PARENTHETICAL WorDs or Expressions are intermediate words, phrases, or clauses, which, though required by the sense of the passage in which they occur, are not essential to the construction. Of these a fuller description, with illustrations, will be given under the rule which treats of the mode of punctuating them.

IX. CorrELATIvEs. — When two words express reciprocal relations, or correspond one to another, they are termed correlative words ; as, “ Pompey was not so brave a general as Cassar.” —“ Though the he was morally poor.” man was intellectually rich, yet

p. 36

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS.

Correlatives may be nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; but those to which reference will be made in this work are chiefly of a conjunetive nature, denoting relations of various kinds, — sometimes that of connection, dependence, or consequence; and sometimes of compa-

rison, similitude, or equality.

X. Apposirion. — Nouns, pronouns, or phrases, or a noun or pronoun and a phrase, are said to be in apposition, when put in the samo case, and signifying the same thing, or when one is used as explana-

tory of the other; as, “ The river Thames.”

XI. A Series denotes a succession of three or more words,

phrases, or clauses, joined in construction; as, —

1. The hermit’s life is private, calm, devotional, and contemplative. 2. Fire of imagination, strength of mind, and firmness of soul, are rare gifts. 8. God’s love watcheth over all, provideth for all, maketh wise adaptations for all.

The first example exhibits a series of words; the second, of phrases; the third, of clauses. What are termed by elocutionists the members of a series will in this work be called particulars. XII. A Compounp Worp consists of two or more simple or pr— mitive words; as,

1. Fireside.

2. Nevertheless.

8. Self-conceit.

4. Fellow-workman.

The simple words in compounds may, in general, be known from their being separately current in the language. For the sake of brevity, they are sometimes called simples or primitives. The term DeRIvaTIvE is restricted to a compound word, the por-

tions of which are not each separately used in English; as, manly, excitement, consciousness, generalization: prospectus, circumstance, phtlosopher, theology.

XIII. The Construction of a sentence is the mode in which its — its words, phrases, and clauses— are combined and armaterials ranged. When two or more phrases or expressions qualify others, or are qualified by them; when they act as nominatives to the same

verb; when they govern the same words or phrases, or are governed they are said to be by the same verbs, participles, or prepositi —ons, in the same construction

p. 37

ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITION.

After the pupil has acquired a knowledge of the

meaning of the terms just explained, or revived the impressions which he had previously received from his

study of syntactical principles, he should state, in his own words, the nature and object of Punctuation, and then analyze the following extracts, or any other piece of composition, into sentences, and their various parts :—

| EXERCISE.

Aturns. — If we consider merely the subtlety of disquisition, the force of imagination, the perfect energy and elegance of expression, which characterize the great works of Athenian genius, we must pronounce them intrinsically most valuable. But what shall we say when we reflect that from hence have sprung, directly or indirectly,

all the noblest creations of the human intellect; that from hence were the vast accomplishments and the brilliant fancy of Cicero, the withering fire of Juvenal, the plastic imagination of Dante, the humor of Cervantes, the comprehension of Bacon, the wit of Butler, the supreme and universal excellence of Shakspeare? All the triumphs of truth and genius over prejudice and power, in every country and

in every age, have been the triumphs of Athens. Wherever a few great minds have made a stand against violence and fraud, in the cause of liberty and reason, there has been her spirit in the midst of them, inspiring, encouraging, consoling, — by the lonely lamp of Erasmus, by the restless bed of Pascal, in the tribune of Mirabeau, in the cell of Galileo, on the scaffold of Sidney. But who shall estimate her influence on private happiness? Who shall say how many thousands have been made wiser, happier, and better by those pur-

suits in which she has taught mankind to engage; to how many the studies which took their rise from her have been wealth in poverty, liberty in bondage, health in sickness, society in solitude? Her power is, indeed, manifested at the bar, in the senate, in the field of battle, in the schools of philosophy. But these are not her glory. Wherever literature consoles sorrow, or assuages pain; wherever it brings gladness to eyes which fail with wakefulness and tears, and

— there is exhibited, in ache for the dark house and the long sleep, its noblest form, the immortal influence of Athens.

p. 38

ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITION.

The dervise, in the Arabian tale, did not hesitate to abandon to his comrade the camels with their load of jewels and gold, while he retained the casket of that mysterious juice which enabled him to behold at one glance all the hidden riches of the universe. Surely it is no exaggeration to say, that no external advantage is to be compared with that purification of the intellectual eye which gives us to contemplate the infinite wealth of the mental world; all the hoarded treasures of its primeval dynasties, all the shapeless ore of its yet unexplored mines. This is the gift of Athens to man. Her freedom and her power have, for more than twenty centuries, been annihilated; her people have degenerated into timid slaves; her language, into a barbarous jargon; her temples have been given up to the successive depredations of Romans, Turks, and Scotchmen: but her intellectual empire is imperishable. And when those who have rivalled her greatness shall have shared her fate; when civilization and knowledge shall have fixed their abode in distant continents; when the sceptre shall have passed away from England; when, perhaps, travellers from distant regions shall in vain labor to decipher — on some mouldering pedestal the name of our proudest chief, shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen idol over the ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single naked — fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts, her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal youth, exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellectual principle from which they derived their origin, and over which they exercise their control. —T. B. MAcAULAY: Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, vol. iii, pp. 402, 403.

_ Tux Vocation or Portry. — It is the high and glorious vocation

of Poesy as well to make our own daily life and toil more beautiful and holy to us by the divine ministerings of love, as to render us swift to convey the same blessing to our brother. Poesy is love’s chosen apostle, and the very almoner of God.

She is the home of the out-

cast, and the wealth of the needy. For her the hut becomes a palace,

whose halls are guarded by the gods of Phidias, and kept peaceful by the maid-mothers of Raphael. She loves better the poor wanderer | whose bare feet know by heart the freezing stones of the pavement,

than the delicate maiden for whose dainty soles Brussels and Turkey have been overcareful; and I doubt not but some remembered scrap of childish song hath often been a truer alms than all the benevolent societies could give. —J. R. LowELu: Conversations, gc., p. 133.

p. 39

CHAPTER IL THE

GRAMMATICAL

POINTS.

In accordance with the plan proposed in the last section,

this chapter will be devoted to the consideration ofthe

The Comma

principal sentential marks, namely, —

- The Semicoton.

2...

- The Periop

.....

- The Coton

2.1.

[ [

[

1...

[

The Comma marks the smallest grammatical division _ of a sentence, and usually represents the shortest pause ;

the Semicolon and the Colon separate those portions

which are less connected than those divided by commas,

and admit each of a greater pause; and the Period is, what its name denotes, a full stop, which commonly terminates a sentence. REMARK.

The names of the points have been borrowed by grammarians from the terms which rhetoricians employed to indicate the various kinds of sentences, and the parts of which they consist. Thus the Period signified a complete circuit of words; a sentence, making,

from its commencement to its close, full and perfect sense.

The

Colon was the greatest member or division of a period or sentence; and the Semicolon, the greatest division of a colon; while the Comma

indicated a smaller segment of the period,—the least constructive part of a sentence. |

—

p. 40

Szot. I. — THE COMMA.

The Comma [ , ] marks the smallest grammatical division in written or printed language, and commonly represents the shortest pause in reading or delivery. REMARKS.

ction, a. Agreeably to the principles contended for in the Introdusmallit will be noticed that the comma is here said, not to mark the atical division ; est segment of a composition, but only the least gramm , when that is, the least portion into which a sentence can be divided many But y. deliver the to not and sense, the to had is regard ; as, atically gramm divided being of admit all sentences do not at though, when “The great use of books is to rouse us to thought;’?should be sepaconsidered in a rhetorical or elocutionary light, they

example just rated into parts, or groups of words, as in reading tothethough t.” | us rouse to | is | books of use given: “ The great nts b. It is usual for grammarians to say, that the comma represe required the shortest pause, and that that pause is equal to the time ons as for counting one; but the remark admits of so many excepti in occur es instanc ous Numer value. al practic any t to be withou a that pause, t shortes the ng indicati from far which the comma is so if not cessation of the voice equal to the time of counting one,andtwo, conthree, is demanded both by the nature of the sentimentwords the vice”’ “ the after e, instanc for as, ge; langua the of n structio

always and “undertake” in the following sentences: “Virtue inis nothing —“ Nations, like men, fail advantageous; vice, never.’? which they boldly undertake, when sustained by virtuous purpose exhibit and firm resolution.’’? In other instances, the comma does not in the as , division atical gramm the merely but er, whatev any pause expression, “ Yes, sir;’? where, in common or unemphatic discourse, no pause can be made between the words. c. On this subject all elocutionists are agreed. Mr. Maglathlin, in the “ National Speaker,” p. 30, says that “ the comma occurs

some-

nor times where there should be no pause in reading or speaking;

certainty can the length of any required stop be inferred with much his “ Elefrom the common stop-mark used.” Dr. Mandeville, in

p. 41

THE

COMMA.

ments of Reading and Oratory,” p. 82, remarks that “the comma does not necessarily represent a pause;”’ that “ it suspends the voice, in unimpassioned reading or speaking, sufficiently long to draw

breath; ”” but that, “ under the influence of emotion, its time is inde-

finite.”

And the celebrated Walker, in “ Rhetorical Grammar,”’ p. 36 (Boston edition, 1814), when speaking of all the points, admits that ‘these marks sufficiently answer the purposes of written language,

by keeping the members of sentences from running into each other, and producing ambiguity; but, when we regard them as guides to pronunciation, they fail us at almost every step.”

RULE

Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, connected by the

Conjunctions AND, OR, NOR.

Two words, belonging to the same part of speech, or

used as such, when closely connected by one of the con-

junctions and, or, nor, are not separated by a comma from each other. EXAMPLES.

1, Pay supreme and undivided homage to goodness and truth.

2. Grand ideas and principles elevate or ennoble the mind.

3. Benefits should be long and gratefully remembered.

4. Virtue or vice predominates in every man and woman.

5. Some monks may be said to be neither of nor in the world.

6. The necessity and the use of physic have been much exaggerated.

7. It is natural to compassionate those who are suffering and alone. REMARKS.

a. In these examples, it will be seen that the comma is regarded as inadmissible, not only between two words united by a conj unction,

but also after them. Here no point should be used, except when . they come at the end of a clause or sentence, or form such phrases

as, from their construction with others, require to be punctuated; as, ‘To the intelligent and virtuous, old age presents a scene of tranquil

enjoyments.”’

p. 42

TWO CONJOINED WORDS.

6. Some writers distinguish two connected prepositions by the insertion of commas, and would point the fifth example thus: “ Some

monks may be said to be neither of, nor in, the world.” But there seems to be no valid reason for deviating from the rule; though, when prepositions are removed from, and at the same time connected with, each other, and are dependent on one and the same term (as in the sentence we are just writing, and as in the eighth example under Rule V.), a comma is required after each to bring out the sense.

c. By referring to p. 22, Definition VI., it will be found that the insertion of an article between connected words, as in the sixth example, does not at all affect the validity of the rule.—In the seventh example, the words united by the conjunction are not of the same part of speech, unless the phrase be treated elliptically, so as to

mean “suffering and being alone;’’ but instances of this or a similar

kind are obviously subject to the same principle as words of one sort. d. When the first of two connected words is qualified by a preceding adjective or adverb which is inapplicable to the second, or when the latter is followed by a term not belonging to the former, a comma is usually required before the conjunction; as, “ Donations will be thankfully received, and applied to the benefit of the suffering poor.’”? — “’T was certain he could write, and cipher too.” -e. The comma, however, is not inserted between the conjoined words, when the latter is immediately preceded by a qualifying or _ governing word, and both refer to one and the same term; as, “ The world has confidence in the judgment and wise conduct of a truly honest man.’””

jf. When two phrases, the former ending and the other beginning with a noun, are joined by the conjunction and, or, or nor, they may

be separated by a comma; as, “ Integrity of understanding, and nicety of discernment, were not allotted in a less proportion to Dryden than

to Pope.” —“ So shall sweet thowghis, and thoughis sublime, my constant inspiration be.’ The comma is also placed after the last phrase, when, as in these examples, it relates, equally with the first, | . to the remainder of the sentence. g. If, however, the first phrase is preceded by one of the correlatives both, either, neither, or the second by an article, or when the phrases are introduced into the body of a sentence necessarily requiring the insertion of commas, they should be left unpointed; as, “Both integrity of understanding and nicety of discernment were allotted in a no less proportion,’ &c.— Man is the child of God and the heir of immortality.” —“ As we do, and we must as Protestants, consider

p. 43

THE COMMA.

Romanism a false and vicious system of religion or form of Chris-

tianity, whatever we can lawfully and morally do to stay its progress,

we not only have a right, but it is our duty, to do.” In the last example, the two Italicized phrases are not separated by a comma,

because the advantage of this mode of pointing in a more simply constructed sentence would be counterbalanced here by the disadvantages resulting from all the phrases being set off alike. h. When the second of two words, united by the conjunction and or or, is elliptical, or is inserted as an after-thought or for the sake of emphasis, it may be pointed off by commas; as, “ A sense of personal propriety would often interrupt, and exclude, an imputation of unworthy motives to those who hold opinions opposite to our an own: the sense being, “ would interrupt, if i would not exclude, imputation,” &c.; or “ would interrupt, and indeed exclude.’ ‘The awkwardness of the punctuation, which forms an exception to the rule, might usually be avoided by a happier construction of such sentences.

i. When the conjunction or stands between two nouns, or between a noun and a phrase, which are synonymous, or of which the latter is explanatory of the former, they may be separated by a comma from each other; as, “The dwelling of Norma was not unaptly compared to the eyry of the ospray, or sea-eagle.”’ If the explanatory term is intermediate or parenthetical, a comma should be placed after each of the terms; as, “ Sin, or moral evil, should excite the greatest abhorrence.” —- See Rule VIII. j. Some punctuators would apply the preceding remark as a rule to all instances in which one of two words, coupled by the conjunction or, is explanatory of the other. In nouns, we think, the comma

is usually required, to show that the terms, which might otherwise be regarded as significant of two ideas or things, are designed to represent only one and the same; but the pointing of adjectives and adverbs similarly situated would, in many cases, tend, by the break~

mg-up of the connection, to confuse, instead of assisting, the reader. Besides, it should be remembered that qualifying words are seldom, if ever, perfectly synonymous; and that, even if they were exactly the omission of the commas could scarcely of the same signification,

affect the sense. For instance, this sentence, ‘ He who is devoutly

or piously disposed to God is also benignant or kind to men,” is as easily understood as if it were punctuated, ‘He who is devoutly,

or piously, disposed to God is also benignant, or kind, tomen;” and,

in the unpointed form, is more agreeable to the eye.

p. 44

TWO CONJOINED WORDS.

ORAL EXERCISES.

After describing the nature and uses of the comma, as mentionedin page 27, state

the first Rule, and assign the reason why the connected wordsiin the follow-

ing sentences are unpointed: —

Liberty and eloquence have been united in all ages. Some children learn early to sing and to dance.

We often see rank or riches preferred to merit or talent. Let us cherish an earnest and a reverential love of truth. The liberal arts soften and harmonize the temper.

An unjust merchant is neither loved nor respected. Be vitally and practically interested in the well-being of all. Let nothing be done insincerely or hypocritically. Let neither indolence nor vice canker the promise of the heart. Within and without us are many foes to rectitude. According to Remarks in pages 28—80, state the reasons for the omission or the insertion of commas between conjoined words in the following sentences:— |

The youth wrote letters both to and concerning the lady.

Socrates was a virtuous and a wise man. A convenient spot, and surprise, effected his purpose. The prophet went, and addressed the people. He, and he only, is worthy of our supreme affections.

Piety and unsullied virtue are venerated even by the wicked.

Moneyis the bane of bliss, and source of woe. Have both soundness of faith and activity of benevolence. Neither purity of aim nor goodness of deed was attributed to him. Regard the rights of persons and the rights of property. It may, and must, exist under the circumstances of the case.

Would you escape, and live; remain, or die?

Speak, or perish.

The laverock, or lark, is distinguished for its singing. Parenthetical or intermediate words are often used. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Write the ‘following sentences, and punctuate those only which, agreeably to the Remarks, should have commas: —

An ellipsis or omission of wordsis foundin all kinds of composition.

(Remarks d and 2.)

How many a knot of mystery and misunderstanding would be

untied by one word spoken in simple and confiding truth of heart!

p. 45

382

THE COMMA.

A distinction ought to be made between fame and true honor,

(Remark e.) The balmy influences of neither sea nor sky could revive or

restore him. Refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually result from grammatical studies.

(Remark /-)

The greatest genius is never so great as when it is chastised and subdued by the highest reason.

In composition thereis a transposed or inverted order of words, as well as a conventional or common arrangement.

(Remark j.)

The first end to which all wisdom or knowledge ought to be employed is to illustrate the wisdom and goodness of God. Morality and religion itself is degraded by the use of unmeaning

terms.

(Remark d.)

Is it sickness or selfishness that spreads most misery through our

homes ? _

A quickness of observation and an ingenuousness of character are ©

often found in very young children.

(Rule, and Remarks c, g.)

The Greek and Roman writers were once understood and relished in a remarkable degree.

Some have neither the resolution nor the power of carrying their projects to a completion.

(Rule, and Remarks c, g.)

Pope examined lines and words with minute and punctilious

observation.

The nineteenth century has been and is a time of extraordinary mental activity.

(Remark h:)

I would calmly and humbly submit myself to the good and blessed

will of God. Let us greet and take by the hand those who were our youthful

companions.

(Remark d.)

The human heart beats quick at the sight or"hearing of courageous and disinterested deeds. The senses or sensibility of one body may be radically more acute

than those of another.

(Remarki.)

The most ferocious conflicts have been brightened by examples of

magnanimous and patriotic virtue. It was the greatest act ever done either by or for human beings. (Rule, and Remark 0.)

Whenever, therefore, we divide Christianity into doctrines of faith and doctrines of practice, we must remember that the division is one

of our own fabrication.

(Rule, and last portion of Remark g.)

p. 46

TWO WORDS NOT CONJOINED. RULE

II.

Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, not connected by a Conjunction.

Two words, of the same part of speech and in the same construction, if used without a conjunction between — them, are separated from each other by a comma. EXAMPLES.

bs —

. Lend, lend your wings.

The dignity of a man consists in thought, intelligence Can flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? . The discipline of suffering nourishes, invigorates virtue.

5. We are fearfully, wonderfully made.

6. Their search extends along, around the path. 7 Never was beheld a child fairer, more beautiful. REMARKS.

a. Tho adverbs more and most, the former of which occurs in the seventh example, are considered here as united with the adjectives or the adverbs which they qualify. Thus, “ more beautiful’’ is

equivalent to the single but antiquated word beautifuller.

6. Besides the comma inserted between two nouns, or between two words equivalent to nouns, the same point is put after the last, when it does not end a sentence or a clause; as, ‘ Thought, thought, is the fundamental distinction of mind.’ — Reason, virtue, answer one great aim.” — “ The earth is filled with the labors, the works, of the dead.” In these and similar instances, the comma is required to

show that both nouns are equally related to what follows.

c. But the comma should be omitted after the second of the nouns, if it alone is connected in sense with the last portion of the clause; as, “The miseries of war bear the impress of cruelty, of hardness of heart.”

d. Strict accuracy seems to require the insertion of a comma after the last of the governing and qualifying words in the examples under the rule; namely, after “lend,” “cold,” “invigorates,” ‘ wonderfully,” “around.” But this mode of punctuating is opposed to the most reputable usage, and is seldom needed to bring out the sense;

not to mention the uncouth appearance which modifying or governing words have when standing alone, or in disruption from the context; ;

p. 47

THE COMMA.

as, ‘* All great works of genius come from deep, lonely, thought.” Contrast the sentence, thus pointed, with “ All great works of genius

come from deep, lonely thought,” and the superiority of the latter .

form will be obvious.

e. When, however, the adjectives or adverbs are used to qualify

a word that precedes them, a comma should be placed after the

_ second, if the clause is unfinished; as, “‘ The world that is outward, material, is the shadow of that which is spiritual.’”’ A comma should also be placed after the second of two governing words, when they precede, not a single word, but a phrase or clause; as, “ To deny ourselves is to deny, to renounce, whatever interferes with our con-

victions of right.”

jf. The comma should be omitted between two adjectives, when the first qualifies the second adjective and a noun; as, “ The emperor

possessed a beautiful white horse ;’? that is, the emperor had a white

horse that was beautiful. Were a comma placed between the adjectives, the sense would be that he possessed a horse that was beautiful and white.

g. When two adjectives that are not synonymous precede a noun,

and convey only one idea, they are treated as a compound epithet, and united by a hyphen; as, “ The maidens danced amid the /festalsounding shades.”

h. If two nouns are used as a compound, whether so written or not, or if the former partakes of the nature of an adjective, they are not separated by a comma; as, “ Walter Scott ranks high as a

fiction-writer.” —“ Ward Room, Franklin Schoolhouse, Washington Street.””

Words similar to those mentioned in this and the preceding

remark will be explained under the “‘ Hyphen.”

4. When a word iterated is the resumption of a sentiment broken off, a dash is used before the repetition, instead of a comma; as, “ But I fear—I fear Richard hardly thought the terms proposed were worthy of his acceptance.” The punctuation of broken sentences will be more fully treated of under the “ Dash.” Acomma may be put after two adverbs, or after an adverb j. repeated, as well as between them, when they qualify a clause; as,

“% Verily, verily, 1 say unto you.’’? But when one adverb is followed by another, the former qualifying the latter, no comma is admissi-

ble; as, “ The part was remarkably well performed.”

k. The last of two verbs, participles, or prepositions, if used without governing the words that follow them, is set off with a comma; as, “ On, on, when honor calls.”

p. 48

TWO WORDS NOT CONJOINED.

1. It not unfrequently happens, that two prepositions or conjunctions come together, without requiring any separation by a marked pause; as, “He walks up towards the hill.” —“ The pupil of a docile disposition not only loves, but also venerates, his preceptor.” In respect, however, to the former example, it may be observed that

the first preposition is not in construction with the secord, but forms

part of the verb “ walk,’ which is compound, and would in some languages be expressed by a single word; and, as to the latter, that the conjunctions “ but” and “ also’? are so closely connected in sense as to be inseparable in construction.

ORAL EXERCISES.

Explain how Rule Il. requires the insertion of commas between words of the same part of speech in the following sentences: —

Nothing is so intelligible as sincere, disinterested love.

Sound, sound the tambourine!

Strike, strike the mandaline!

Men live abroad in regions which are milder, more temperate. Socrates and Plato were philosophers, sages.

The outward, material world is the shadow of the spiritual.

Genius is not a quality of idle, lazy men. Rash, fruitless war is only splendid murder.

Fairly,rightly regarded, religionis the great sentiment of life Storms purge the air without, within the breast.

State how the reasons given in the Remarks for the insertion or the omission of commas (pp. 88, 84) will apply to the following sentences : —

It is a matter of the finest, the most deliberate calculation.

The only test of goodness, virtue, is moral strength.

Virtue, religion, is the one thing needful. Woe, woe, to the rider that tramples them down! A steady, durable good cannot be derived from an external cause. Work thatis easy, pleasant, does not make robust minds.

Remove, expel the blustering, blundering blockhead! The history of the humblest human life is a tale of marvels. How delightful to gaze at the dark-blue sky! Behold that crowd of keen, anxious-looking men.

Some village Hampden here may rest.

Mirthfully, wildly, the bright waves flash along.

A benevolent man is very much esteemed, respected. Fallen, fallen, is the mighty Babylon!

p. 49

THE COMMA. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

In writing the following sentences, punctuate those words only which require commas, in accordance with the second Rule and the Remarks : —~

The young shepherd promised to buy me a pretty brown ribbon. (Remark /.)

The man of true refinement will not object to enter into the honest

heartfelt enjoyments of common life. (Rule, and Remark d.) The rosy-crowned Loves, with their many-twinkling feet, frisk with antic Sports and blue-eyed Pleasures.

(Remark g.)

A good that is steady durable cannot be derived from an external cause.

(Rule, and Remark e.)

The intellect and the conscience are intimately indissolubly bound

together.

(Rule, and Remark d.)

Employment activity is one of the fundamental laws of human happiness.

(Rule, and Remark 0.)

Not a few of the wisest grandest spirits have toiled at the work

bench and the plough. (Rule, and Remarks d, h.) A hardy honest peasantry are the glory of an agricultural country. (Rule, and Remark d.) Weeping sighing the mother hid the children in her gory vest. (Rule, and Remark hk.)

The human mind spreads its thoughts abroad into the immea-

surable the infinite.

Does not every man feel, that nothing nothing could induce him to consent to become a slave? (Rule, and Remark 0.)

All all conjure us to act wisely faithfully in the relation whicn we sustain.

(Rule, and Remarks 4, j.)

We should have a deeper a more vivid conviction of the importance

the sacredness of our work. (Rule, and Remarks a, 8.) Of intellectual gifts, the rarest the most glorious is great inven-

tive genius.

(Rule, and Remarks a, e, f-)

Who will deny that imagination refines elevates the other mental] powers? (Rule, and last sentence in Remark e.) The most abandoned men have sometimes professed courage contempt of mere bodily suffering. (Rule, and Remarks c, /\)

A desolate lonely feeling springs up of having exchanged their home for a distant foreign country. (Rule, and Remarks d, /.) All things must work together for certain good, so long as we

continue in free unconditional self-surrender to the service of God.

(Rule, and Remarks d, h.)

p. 50

SERIES OF WORDS. RULE

Ul.

Series of Words of the same Part of Speech.

In a series of words, all of the same part of speech, a comma is inserted between each particular. ‘EXAMPLES.

1. Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness.

4. Alfred the Great was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince.

3. Happy is the man who honors, obeys, loves, or serves his Creator. 4. The discourse was beautifully, elegantly, forcibly delivered. §. The spirit of the Almighty is within, around, and above us. REMARKS.

a. Some punctuators omit the comma between the last two par-

ticulars, when united by either of the conjunctions and, or, nor. But the propriety of using the comma will perhaps be obvious to any one who examines the nature of such sentences: for the last two words of a series are not more closely connected in sense and construction with each other than with the preceding words; as, “ Infancy, childhood, youth, manhood, and age are different stages in human life.” b. When, however, three words of the same part of speech are in juxtaposition, the last being preceded by and or or, but do not form a series, the comma is omitted before the conjunction; as, “* By -the wise arrangement of nature, infancy and childhood last long.” Here the noun “ nature” is governed by the preposition “ of;”” and the two following nouns, “ infancy and childhood,” are of themselves the compound nominative to the succeeding verb. The punctuation, therefore, differs from that of a sentence in which three words are used in a series, or in the same construction; as, “‘ Childhood, youth, and maturity last longer or shorter in different individuals.” c. In a series of three nouns preceded by an adjective qualifying only the first, the comma should be omitted before the conjunction; as, “The characteristics of Mr. Mason’s mind were real greatness, strength and sagacity.”’

d. A comma should be put after the last noun in a series, if it is not joined to the others by a conjunction, and does not end a sentence or clause; as, “ Reputation, virtue, happiness, depend greatly on the — “The good man is alive to all the symchoice of companions.” pathies, the sanctities, the loves, of social existence.” When, how-

ever, and, or, or nor occurs, the comma is unnecessary after the last

p. 51

THE COMMA.

noun, because the conjunction shows that all the particulars have, either separately or together, a relation to what follows in the sentence; as, ‘ Reputation, virtue, and happiness depend greatly on

the choice of companions.’’-~“ The good man is alive to all the sympathies, the sanctities, and the loves of social existence.”

e. When the last particular is one of several qualifying words, it must not be separated by’a point from that portion of the sentence on which it acts;

as, “Too much of our love is an instinctive,

angoverned, narrow, selfish feeling.’? — See p. 33, Remark d.

J. But a comma should be put after the last adjective or adverb, not preceded by a conjunction, when it is separated by the other

particulars of the series or by a verb from the word qualified, and

does not finish the clause or sentence; as, “ There is something real, substantial, ¢mmortal, in Christian virtue.’? —“ Exalted, tender.

beneficent, is the love that woman inspires.”

g. When the last governing word in a series is preceded by a con junction, a comma is unnecessary after it; but, if written without

a conjunction, the comma should be inserted; as, “ God’s design is to recover, exalt, and dless the guiltiest of our race.’ — “ Endeavor to

elevate, refine, purify, the public amusements.”

When, however,

the term governed is only a monosyllabic word, the comma may in — such cases be omitted; as, “ Teach, urge, threaten, lecture him.”

h. When three or more words of the same part of speech, and in

the same construction, are severally connected by means of and, or, or nor, the comma may be omitted after each of the particulars; as,

‘Let us freely drink in the soul of love and beauty and wisdom from all nature and art and history.”

Some writers separate all such

serial words by a comma; but a mode of punctuation so stiff as this seldom aids in developing the sense, and, in sentences requiring other

commas, is undoubtedly offensive to the eye, if it does not obscure

the meaning itself.

A correct reader will, however, as a matter of

course, pause more or less after each particular, in accordance with

the nature of the sentiment.

t. But, when a series of nouns is resolvable into two or more phrases, each having two coupled words, a comma should be used between the phrases; as, “ A Christian spirit may be manifested to

Greek or Jew, male or female, friend or foe.” j- When, in two or more pairs, only the last pair depends on a

- concluding term, the comma should be omitted after it; as, * The true Christian is a man of principle, of truth and integrity, of kindness and modesty, of reverence and devotion to the Supreme Glory.”

p. 52

SERIES OF WORDS.

ORAL EXERCISES.

Recite the Rule (p.87) for the insertion of commas in the following sentences :—

Learn patience, calmness, self-command, disinterestedness, love The mind is that which knows, feels, and thinks. Honor, affluence, and pleasure seduce the heart. Milton’s poetry is always healthful, bright, and vigorous. The child can creep, skip, walk, or run.

Let great principles be wrought into the mind, the heart, the life. The work was neither dexterously, quickly, nor well done. The love that woman inspires is exalted, tender, and beneficent.

Agreeably to the Remarks (pp. 87, 38), state the reasons for the insertion or the omission of commas in the following sentences :—

Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian are high authorities in rhetoric. The tendency of poetry is to refine, purify, expand, and elevate. God is the source, object, model, of perfect love. _ The air, the earth, the water, teem with delighted existence. His reign is that of a great, godlike, disinterested being. Wise, eloquent, cautious, intrepid, was Ulysses. The arts prolong, comfort, and cheer human life. Charity beareth, believeth, hopeth, all things. The man professed neither to eat nor drink nor sleep. The poor and rich, and weak and strong, have all one Father.

Say why the omission of a comma between the last two conjoined nouns in the following sentences does not accord with the Rule, but with Remark b:—

In Paradise, Adam and Eve reigned supreme.

There was, in

Eve’s every gesture, dignity and love.

According to the Thompsonian philosophy, heat and cold are

antagonist identities.

In two branches of science, chemistry and natural history, medi-

cal men have been the most successful laborers.

It is well calculated to render the timber impenetrable to the , — air and moisture. agents of decomposition, Dr. Twitchell’s wonderful faculty often rendered the unintelligibie

plain and clear.

In reference to time, hours and days are of great importance: in

respect to eternity, years and ages are nothing.

p. 53

THE COMMA. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

In putting commas between or after the serial words in the following sentences, be guided by the third Rule and the Remarks (pp. 87, 38):—

Let holiness goodness virtue be to you the pearl of great price.

(Rule, and first portion of Remark d.) The recovery of our little darling dancing singing Mary is worth all the gold that ever was mined. (Rule, and Remark e.)

The hardships of a good life prove refine and exalt the human (Rule, and first portion of Remark g.) No one can find peace but in the growth of an enlightened firm disinterested holy mind. (Rule, and Remark e.) character.

Ease indulgence luxury sloth are the sources of misery; making a _ man a poor sordid selfish wretched being.

(Rule, and Remarks d, e.)

A great soul is known by its enlarged strong and tender sympa-

thies.

(Rule, Remark e, and last of d.)

All that charms the eye or the ear or the imagination or the heart is the gift of God.

(Remark h.)

The Indian nut alone is clothing, meat and trencher drink and can.

(Remark 2.)

All have some conceptions of truth kindness honesty self-denial and disinterestedness.

(Rule, and Remark a.)

In a city there is much to inflame imbitter degrade the minds of the poor.

(Rule, and second portion of g.)

Let us every day become more pure kind gentle patient spiritual and devout.

(Rule, and Remark a.)

Meekly truthfully disinterestedly the dying man had trod the path

of life.

(Rule, and Remark /\)

In heaven live the friends benefactors deliverers ornaments of their

race.

(Rule, and first of Remark d.)

True courage is the exercise result and expression of the highest attributes of our nature.

(Rule, and last of Remark d.)

Some have unreasonably denied the strength and fervor and enduringness of human love.

(Remark h.)

The Hebrewis closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the old

Persian the Syriac and the Chaldee. (Rule, and Remark a. )

You are a parent or a child a brother or a sister a husband or a

wife a friend or an associate of some kindred soul.

(Remark 7.)

Our present knowledge thoughts feelings characters are the results of former impressions passions and pursuits. Remarks d, a.)

(Rule, and

p. 54

WORDS IN APPOSITION.

RULE IV. Nouns or Phrases in Apposition.

§ [. Two nouns or personal pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, one in apposition with the other, should not

be separated by a comma, if they may be regarded as

a proper name or as a single phrase.

§ II. But a noun or pronoun and a phrase, or two or

more phrases, when put in apposition, are separated by a comma from each other, and, if the sentence or clause is unfinished, from what follows. EXAMPLES.

§ 1. ee

. The poet Milton wrote excellent prose and better poetry.

. It is well known that the word “‘ philosopher ”’ signifies lover of wisdom. . He himself was the editor of the work; but he left it a botch.. § I.

1. Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to have been blind. We, the people of the United States, are lovers of republicanism. 8. The twin sisters, Piety and Poetry, are wont to dwell together. REMARKS.

a, The term noun here is so used as to apply either to a single word of this character, or to an unemphatic word anda noun. Thus,

both words, “the poet,” in the first example, are, to avoid circum-

locution, spoken of as a noun, and not as a phrase.

b. When two or more words can be treated as one compound

name or as a single phrase, they do not admit a comma between them; as, ‘ Alexander of Macedon; Sir William Jones; our Lord Jesus Christ; the Lord God Almighty.” But if names, titles, or characteristics are so applied as to vary the thought, or produce a separate impression on the mind, they should be set apart by a comma; as, “ Worship thy Creator, God; and obey his Son, the

Master, King, and Saviour of men.”

c. The word brothers, when put in apposition with a proper name

in a firm, is left unpointed; as, “Smith Brothers and Co.” But when used, either in the singular or plural number, to convey the notion of another person, it is not in apposition, and must therefore

be distinguished by the comma; as, “ Smith, Brother, and Co.”

p. 55

THE COMMA.

d. Proper names, when inverted, are separated by a comma; as, “ James, Thomas; Williamson,

Jobn;*"? meaning Thomas James, and

John Williamson.

e. After the word price, when immediately preceding the value

of any commodity, the comma may be omitted; as, “ Price $5,” or “Price fifty cents.’

Jj. A comma is put between two nouns or pronouns if used synonymously, or if the latter expresses an illustrative or an additional thought; as, “Force of voice is strength, energy; vivacity is life,

animation.’ —“ A son, John, was born after his father’s death.” g- When a proper name is put after a phrase in apposition, the

comma may be omitted; as, “ The great orator Cicero was famed for Unless where the noun is introduced by way of explanation or parenthesis; and, in such a case, it is preceded by a comma, and, in an unfinished clause, followed by the same point; as, “ The wisest of the Jewish kings, Solomon, became a fool.” h. When the first of two nouns of the possessive case has the sign many excellences.””

of possession, a comma should intervene between them; as, “The

work will be found at Appleton’s, the bookseller.” But, if the posses-

sive sign is omitted after the first noun, and put after the second, the comma may be dispensed with; as, “It will be seen at Putnam the publisher’s.”” Should, however, this mode of writing be so constructed as to have, for the unmarked possessive, several names constituting a firm, a comma should be inserted before the noun ending with the s and apostrophe; as, “ The young man is a clerk

at Little, Brown, and Company, the publishers’ ;”? the awkwardness of .

the punctuation here arising from the clumsiness of the expression.

i. If a term, preceding a noun or a pronoun, is used absolutely, a comma is inserted only between them; as, “ A trifling scholar, he heeds not the lessons of instruction.” j. When a pronoun of the second person immediately precedes a

noun, a relative pronoun, or a word or phrase used for a noun, the comma is unnecessary between them; as, “Thow river, roll; ye who are aged, come; all ye high Powers.” But if the pronoun, as the nominative to a verb, or as the antecedent of a relative, is separated or if it is put in the objective case, a comma should be from them, put before and after the intervening term; as, “ Thou, Father, markest the tears I shed.” “ What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance???

“On thee, beloved, I wait.”

k. When the latter of two nouns or phrases is predicated of the

former, the comma is not required between them; as, “ Plutarch calls

p. 56

WORDS IN APPOSITION.

lying the vice of slaves.” —“ The Romans thought Augustus Ceesar a god.’ —* 1 consider Dr. Johnson as an excellent moralist.”’ So also if the subject spoken of be a pronoun; as, “The people elected han president of the United States.”

ORAL EXERCISES.

Show how the following sentences exemplify the fourth Rule, in respect to the insertion or omission of commas : —

;

Friends, the beloved of my bosom, were near.

Mahomet was a native of Mecca, a city in Arabia.

The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent work on morals.

‘The term “reason” has been variously defined. Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, lived in a tub.

Bowditch the astronomer translated the “ Mécanique Céleste.”

Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest. The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun.

Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every misfortune. Spenser the poet lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Art thou that traitor angel who first broke peace in heaven?

I Paul, the prisoner of Jesus Christ for you Gentiles. I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am come unto thee.

Say why, according to the Remarks (pp. 41, 42), commas are inserted or omitted in the following sentences : —

The emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts.

The frigate “ Jamestown’? conveyed corn to the suffering Irish. God is a Father-God, a God of paternal love.

To thee we bow, Friend, Father, King of kings!

“ Adjunct” is derived from adjunctum, addition, something added.

Ease, rest, Gwes its deliciousness to toil. William was slain; leaving one child, Alice.

The eloquent preacher Massillon was a Frenchman.

The author of “ Paradise Lost,’ Milton, was a noble-minded man At Thomson the hatter’s store. At Thomson’s, the hatter. A brave boy, he could not injure others.

O Thou whose love can ne’er forget its offspring, man!

Ye powers and spirits of this nethermost abyss.

Thou, Lord, art the life and light of all this wondrous world. All agree in designating Howard a philanthropist.

p. 57

THE COMMA EXERCISE TO BE

WRITTEN.

fnsert commas where, according to pages 41-48,

they are required : —

In Greek, the word “ poet’ denotes a maker a creator.

§1.; and Remarks a, SJ)

(Rule,

The apostle John was peculiarly beloved by his divine Master Jesus Christ the Saviour of the world. (Rule, and Remark 6.) The capital of Turkey Constantinople is finely situated on the European side of the Bosphorus. (Last of Remark g.) General Washington the first president of the United States was a

true patriot a genuine lover of his country.

(Rule, and Remark 8.)

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus says, “ Often return to your true

mother philosophy.”

(Remark 4, first portion; and Remark :)

Much stress was laid upon pronunciation delivery by the most eloquent of all orators Demosthenes. (Remark J, and last of g.) London the capital of Great Britain contains nearly three millions of inhabitants. (Rule, § 11.)

A great and gloomy man the king sat upon the throne of his

ancestors.

(Remark 7.)

I recommend the reading of good books as a source of improve- _

ment and delight.

(Remark &.)

The first expedition of Columbus was fitted out

Duke of Calabria.

(Rule, § 1.; and Remark 4.)

O Thou who hast at thy command the hearts

hand!

(First of Remark j.)

by John of Anjou of all men in thy

I Artaxerxes the king decree that whatsoev er Ezra the priest the scribe of the law shall require, &c. (Rule, and Remark 8.)

You blocks!

you stones! you worse than senseless things!

you hard hearts! you cruel men of Rome!

(First of Remark J)

And, when the angel Death stands by, be thou

my God my helper

When, as returns this solemn day, man comes

to meet his Maker

nigh.

God.

(Rule, Remark 8, and last of J)

(Last of Remark 0.)

The world-famed dramatist Shakspeare lived in the reign of the greatest of English queens Elizabeth. (Remark g:) Adonijah the son of Haggith came to Bathsheb a the mother of Solomon. (Rule, § 11.) . In the firm of Graham Brother and Co. there are three persons in

partnership, — James Graham, his younger brother, and John

Jones;

but I do not know how many there are in the firm of Kennedy

Brothers, —- whether there be two or more.

(Remark c.) -

p. 58

WORDS OR PHRASES IN CONTRAST. RULE

Words or Phrases in Contrast.

Words or phrases contrasted with each other, or

having a mutual relation to others that follow them, in the same clause, are separated by commas. EXAMPLES. . False delicacy is affectation, not politeness.

ANP

. The author of that work was a distinguished poet, but a bad man. . Many persons gratify their eyes and ears, instead of their understandings. . Prudence, as well as courage, is necessary to overcome obstacles. Strong proofs, not a led voice, produce conviction. One may utter many pompous, and speak but few intelligible, worde Avoid, or rather prevent the introduction of, so pernicious a fashion.

ODN

. Good men are not always found in union with, but sometimes in opposition

to, the views and conduct of one another REMARKS.

a. Not a few authors would write the sixth example without a comma after the adjective “intelligible.” But though it is well te avoid the use of the point after a qualifying or a governing word when

its omission could effect no ambiguity, as in the phrase “ deep, donely

thought,” and others referred to in p. 33, Remark d; yet where, as in the instance under the present rule, the words or phrases, which have a common bearing on one and the same expression, are apart, and the first is properly set off by a comma, the insertion of a cor-

responding comma after the second seems requisite for an easy obtaining of the sense. And this, indeed, is the usage of the best, though perhaps not of the most numerous, punctuators.

b. The seventh and eighth examples are introduced here, not as models of composition, but to show that the harshness of their construction demands a corresponding rigor in the mode of punctuation. This, however, the student may sometimes avoid in his own composition, by giving to his style greater freedom and elegance. For instance, the seventh example might be thus constructed and pointed: ‘‘ Avoid so pernicious a fashion, or rather prevent its introduction.” c. When two contrasted or related words, united by either of the conjunctions but, though, yet, as well as, qualify a following noun or phrase, or refer to the same preposition, the comma may be omitted;

as, “ Cesar delivered his orations in elegant but powerful languages.”

p. 59

THE COMMA.

“He was a great though an erring man.” — “ Hercules had the

strength as well as the courage of the lion.”

d. But if the adverb not, either with or without a conjunction, comes between two such words, a comma should be used after each, in accordance with the Rule, to indicate their common dependence on the last portion of the sentence; as, “The strong and violent

emotions are the natural produce of an early, if not of a savage,

state of society.”

e. If the above-mentioned conjunctions unite not two words, but

a word and a phrase, or two phrases, the commas should be inserted;

as, “Intemperance not only wastes the earnings, but the health and

minds, of men.”

jf. Two words or phrases connected by but or yet, or if either of these conjunctions be understood, are separated by a comma, when the first term is preceded by not or though; as, “ Not beautiful, but graceful.”” —“ Though black, yet comely; and though rash, benign.” g. Commas should not be used between words contrastedin pairs,

and having prepositions or conjunctions between them; as, “ Let

elevation without turgidness, purity without primness, pathos without

whining, characterize our style.’”” —“ Nothing is more wise or more

admirable in action than to be resolute and yet calm, earnest and yet

self-possessed, decided and yet modest.”

h. When a negative word or phrase is put before an affirmative one, and does not commence the sentence, the phrases are separated by a comma, not only from each other, but from that portion of the sentence with which they are connected; as, “ The greatest evils

arise to human society, not from wild beasts, but from untamed passions.”’

i. If, however, the word expressing negation is not put in imme-

diate connection with one of the phrases, butin that portion of the sentence on which they depend; or if a finite verb, active or neuter, the comma should be omitted immediately precedes the negative, before the first phrase; as, “ The greatest evils do not arise to human society from wild beasts, but from untamed passions.” —“* The greatest evils to human society arise not from wild beasts, but from

untamed passions.” —“ Itis not from wild beasts, but from untamed

passions, that the greatest evils arise to human society.” j. In some instances, where the insertion of a comma between contrasted phrases, used as a compound intermediate expression,

would tend to obscure the connection subsisting between the parts of a sentence, the point between the phrases may be omitted; as,

p. 60

WORDS OR PHRASES IN CONTRAST.

‘The wise and good of every name are, with diversity of gifts but the same spirit, striving, each in his own way, to carry society forward into a healthier condition than the present.”

By inserting a

comma after “ gifts,’ —a mode of pointing which is correct in itself,

— the relation between the verb “ are” and the participle “ striving ”’ would be in some measure concealed from the eye. k. The principle of omission exemplified in the preceding remark may be occasionally applied to sentences of a different construction, where words or expressions, admitting a comma without its being essential to the sense, are united to others from which the commas

cannot at all be excluded. If this principle is judiciously applied, the relations and dependencies of the several parts of a sentence will

be often exhibited to much advantage.

ORAL EXERCISES.

Why, according to the fifth Rule, should certain words and phrases in the following sentences be set off by commas? —

Truth is not a stagnant pool, but a fountain. Measure your life by acts of goodness, not by years. Intrinsic worth, and not riches, ought to procure esteem.

Speak for, not against, the principles of love and peace. You were paid to fight against, and not to rail at, Alexander. Washington was the head of the nation, and not of a party. Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. Rhetoric is the science, and oratory the art, of speaking well There are few voices in the world, but many echoes.

State the principles, as given in the Remarks, for the omission or the insertion of commas in the following sentences : —

Philosophy makes us wiser, Christianity makes us better, men. Milton burned with a deep yet calm love of moral grandeur. He was not only the teacher but the model of his pupils. Socrates was directed by a good, if not a divine, genius. Learning is the ally, not the adversary, of genius. The man suffered not only in his estate, but in his reputation. It is the duty of a child, not to direct, but to obey, his parents. Religion dwells not in the tongue, but in the heart.

To die for truth is not to die for one’s country, but for the world. We ought not to betray, but to defend, our country.

p. 61

THE COMMA. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Punctuate those sentences which require commas, in accordance with the priner ples laid down in the preceding Rule and Remarks (pp. 45-47): —

It is not the business of virtue to extirpate the affections but to regulate them.

(Rule, and Remark 27.)

We live in deeds not years; in thoughts not breaths; in feelings

not in figures on a dial.

(Rule.)

Novel-reading is generally calculated to weaken if not to debase the moral powers.

(Rule, and Remark d.)

Punishments often shock instead of harmonizing with the common feeling and sense of justice. (Rule.) Most of Homer’s defects may reasonably be imputed not to his genius but to the manners of the age in which he lived.

(Rem. kh.) He who is insensible to praise is either raised far above or sunk

much below the ordinary standard of human nature.

(Rule.) Knowledge is conducive if not essential to all the ends of virtue

(Rule, and Remark d.)

Zeal without knowledge, prudence without courage, and peacefulness without principle, are dangerous qualities.

(Remark g.) Christians have cast away the spirit in settling the precise dignity

of their Master.

(Rule.)

The Pyrrhonists not only doubted of every thing they saw and

heard but of their own existence.

(Rule, and Remark 7.)

A lofty rectitude marked every small as well as every great action of Washington’s life. (Remark c.) The treasures of wisdom are not to be seized with a violent hana but to be earned by persevering labor.

(Rule, and Remark 7.)

The literature of a nation is one of its highest and certainly one

of its most refined elements of greatness and order.

(Rule.)

These who flatter the prejudices of others are the enemies not the

friends of the improvement and happiness of mankind.

(Remark d.) God’s love to us is not a technical dogma but a living and practi-

cal truth.

(Rule.)

Christianity may harmonize with but it needs not the sanction of

philosophy.

(Rule, and Remark 8.)

A man’s self-reproach may be less for what one has than for what

he has not done. -

(Rule.)

Whenever words are contrasted with contradistinguished from or opposed to other words, they are always emphatical. (Rule, and

Remark 0.)

p. 62

WORDS OR PHRASES IN CONTRAST.

Motives of the most sincere though fanciful devotion induced the old man to renew the half-defaced inscriptions on the tombs of his ancestors.

(Remark c.)

Benevolence is not merely a feeling but a principle; not a dream of rapture fer the fancy to indulge is but a business for the hand to .

execute. (Rule, and Remark /-)

The missionary went forth, not only with the wisdom of the serpent but with the simplicity of the dove, to do battle against every form of error and vice. (Remark j.)

Society proceeds from barbarity to refinement, from ignorance to knowledge, from wealth to corruption, and from corruption to ruin. (Remark g.)

Every one can distinguish an angry from a placid a cheerful from a melancholy a thoughtful from a thoughtless and a dull from a penetrating countenance. (Remarks g, a, and Rule.)

- Though unavoidable calamities make a part yet they make not the chief part of the vexations and sorrows that distress human life. (Rule, and Remark /.)

The great object of education is not to store the mind with knowledge but to give activity and vigor to its powers. (Remark 2, and Rule.) We are so made as to be capable not only of perceiving but also of being pleased with or pained by the various objects by which we

-are surrounded. (Rule, and Remarks 4, 0.)

From the hour at which printing was invented, the brain and not the arm, the thinker and not the soldier, books and not kings, were to rule the world.

(Remark g.)

A rhetorical sometimes a grammatical pause should be used after

words in apposition with or in opposition to each other. (Rule, and Remarks a, 6.)

Poetry is a voice that issues from and finds its echoes in the deep popular heart, where lies the source of all faith and of all enthusiasm for good. (Rule, and Remark b.) Contrasted faults through all their manners reign: Though poor luxurious; though submissive vain; Though grave yet trifling; zealous yet untrue;

And, even in penance, planning sins anew.

(Rule, and Remark f.)

By the side of man should stand woman, —not Amazonian but angelic; gentle yet godlike in works of knowledge and duty; meek yet mighty in all the miracles of charity and benevolence. (Rule. and Remark /-)

p. 63

THE COMMA.

RULE

VI.

The Subject and the Predicate.

No point, or pause-mark, is admissible between the subject or nominative and the predicate, or after any word that has a direct bearing on an expression which

immediately follows. EXAMPLES.

1. Poetry has a natural alliance with the best affections of the human heart.

2A grandee on the exchange may be a pauper in God’s universe. 3. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character. 4. The love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul. REMARKS.

a. In the above examples, the words “ poetry,’’ “ grandee,” “to

be indifferent” (equivalent to the noun indifference), and “love,” are the several nominates to the verbs “ has,’’ “ may be,” and “ is.” Such phrases as “a grandee on the exchange,” “to be totally indifferent to praise or censure,’’ are sometimes called nominative phrases; and such an expression as “ the love which survives the tomb,’ a

nominative clause.

(See pp. 21,22; V., VI.)

But, logically speaking,

all these are the subjects of what are severally predicated of them. 6. In these examples, with a partial exception in the first, the nominatives and verbs are accompanied by certain modifying or limiting phrases, so strictly connected in sense with the former as to

be grammatically inseparable from them.

In other words, each of

the sentences expresses an uninterrupted flow of thought, and therefore allows no marked division.

c. There is, however, a class of sentences in which the subject or

the predicate is accompanied with expressions, qualifying or explanatory, that are separable from the portions with which they are connected; as, “ The weakest reasoners, especially on the subject of

religion, are, generally speaking, the most positive.” -—“ Health, which

ts God’s gift, should be preserved.’?

Expressions of this kind are

sometimes termed parenthetical or intermediate, and will be particu-

larly considered under Rule VIII.

In every such case, two commas

must be used, as above, to show the relation of the nominative to its

verb, and that of the verb to the chief words in the predicate.

p. 64

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

d. In the rule, it is said that no pause-mark is admissible under certain circumstances, therein specified.

This qualification of the

principle laid down will be clearly understood, if the learner bear in

mind that pauses are of two kinds: first, those which are marked, or represented to the eye, by the common grammatical points, exhibit-

ing the constituent parts of sentences; and, second, those which are

unmarked, — such rhetorical pauses as are omitted in writing and printing, but required in reading aloud. Thus, in the examples under the rule, the sense and the construction alike forbid the comma to

interfere in separating the nominative or subject from the verb; and yet a correct elocution demands between them a slight pause.

e. From want of attending to the distinction between these two kinds of pauses, some writers would place a comma immediately before the verb, when its subject consists of a number of words, or, as it is commonly expressed, when the nominative is accompanied

with an inseparable adjunct; as, ‘ The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language.”

But unless where, in any given sentence, the length of the subject would give rise to ambiguity or to difficulty in reading it, this mode

of punctuation seems to be useless.

Indeed the reason assigned on

its behalf is a sufficient ground for its rejection; namely, that the

nominative is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct.

For if the

adjunct cannot be separated from the nominative, and if the nominative is intimately joined in sense with the verb which it governs, ‘surely the relation subsisting between them should not be broken up,

except in cases where it is absolutely necessary.

That such adjuncts,

too, are as intimately and grammatically connected with the verb as they are with the nominative, and that they cannot well stand apart,

will be obvious from the example already given, which means that “the good taste of the present age has not allowed us’? — and not

that “the good taste has not allowed us’? —“ to neglect the cultivation of the English language.’?

Sentences of this kind are obviously

very different from those in which adjuncts, or modifying words, are separable both from the nominative and from the verb, as in the

examples cited in Remark c, where a comma, both before and after

the intervening phrase, serves to bring together the parts related to

each other. The pointing objected to is based on a theory which

cannot be reduced to practice, — that every expression, separated from another by the smallest cessation of the voice, should be indi-

cated by a mark; but we again repeat, that only by the sense and the grammatical form of a passage, and not by the rhetorical mode

p. 65

THE COMMA.

of its delivery, must the art of punctuation be regulated, at least so fay as the common points are concerned.

fu To the rule here recommended, there are, however, several exceptions, required by the peculiar form in which a proposition is

sometimes expressed, and by the fact that the insertion of a comma between the subject and the predicate tends occasionally to a clearer perception of an author’s meaning. The exceptions are as follow—: g 1. When a sentence is so constructed as to leave it uncertain whether a modifying word belongs to the subject or the predicate, —

as in the passage, “ The man of talent merely is strong for enterprise and execution,” — a comma should be introduced where it will best develop the sense. If the aim of the writer was to speak of a man of mere talent, the comma should be inserted after the adverb “merely;” but, if of a man of talent who is strong only for enterprise and execution, it should be placed before the adverb. The sentence, indeed, might have been written in accordance with syntactic principles, which would have precluded the necessity of transgressing one of the chief laws in punctuation; but the province of the punctuator is not to change the construction of sentences, but to bring out their meaning in so far as his art will permit him. g 2. When the subject consists of two or more nouns not united by a conjunction, a comma is required before the predicate; as, “Immensity, sublimity, are expressed by a prolongation of the voice.” —* Riches, pleasure, health, become evils to those who do not know

how to use them.” If, however, the nouns are joined by a conjunc-

tion, the comma between the subject and the predicate is omitted; as, “ Sculpture, painting, and poetry will always have admirers.” — See pp. 83, b; 37, d.

g 8. When the nominative is followed by two or more words which belong to it, and between which a comma must be inserted, a comma is required also before the verb; as, “A new feeling of what is due to the ignorant, the poor, and the depraved, has sprung up in society.’ —“* Worlds above, around, and beneath, arch thee about as a centre.”

g 4. When between the extremities, either of a nominative clause or of its predicate, occurs a word or an expression requiring to be marked off by commas, a comma should also be introduced immediately before the predicate; as, ‘* The success with which Rousseau passed, coarse and selfish as he was, for aman of deep and tender feeling, appears to have been the signal for a procession of writers to withdraw the public attention from their own transgressions.’’ —

p. 66

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

‘The evil which is intermixed in human society, serves, without question, to exercise the noblest virtues of the human soul.” If, however, the subject is not a clause, but a phrase, it should not be separated by a comma from the predicate, though the latter contains a word or an expression enclosed by commas; as, “A sincere and honest man may, in truth, do such work as shall make him a benefactor to his neighborhood.”

g 5. When the subject consists of a nominative clause, ending with a noun or pronoun, which is apt to be read so closely with the predicate as to confound the sense, a comma should precede the verb; as, Who does nothing, knows nothing.” —‘‘ That a peculiar state of the mere particles of the brain should be followed by a change of the state of the sentient mind, is truly wonderful.’ —“ He that sees a building as a common spectator, contents himself with speaking of it in the most general terms;’ a sentence which, if left un-

pointed, might, unless more than ordinary attention was given, be

blunderingly read, “ He that sees a building, as a common spectator contents himself with speaking of it,” &c.

g 6. When a nominative clause contains two verbs, with one of which it ends, a comma is required before the predicate; as, “ He that places himself neither higher nor lower than he ought to do, exercises the truest humility.”

g 7. When the subject ends and the predicate begins with the same verb, or with two verbs of a like form, a comma should be placed between them; as, “ Whatever és, is right.” —“ The defendant served, moved to set aside the summons.”

g 8. When a subject is repeated in a different form before its

verb, as sometimes ungrammatically occurs, a comma may be used,

in solemn or forcible language, between the two forms; as, “ The works that I do in my Father’s name, they bear witness of me.”

But, when these modes of expression are used in familiar kinds of

writing, it is better to omit the comma; as, “ My flocks they do wan der.” In another part of the work, it will be seen that a dash (—) is employed in sentences of this construction, when they are highly

rhetorical.

h. By a colloquial idiom, the subject is sometimes found both at

the beginning and the end of a proposition. In such cases, a comma

is inserted before the repeated subject; as, “ He was a distinguished philosopher, Socrates.”

i. The above exceptions may appear, from their number, to over-

throw the rule; but some of them, it will be seen, are in opposition

p. 67

THE COMMA.

to it, only because the sentences themselves are contrary to the laws

of good or elegant composition.

As for the others, it may be remarked, that, if a competent person take up any well-written essay

or discoursein theEnglish language, he will perceive that the prin-

ciple containedin the ruleis applicable to so overwhelming a number

of sentences, as to render the exceptions, were there ten times more than we have pointed out, quite insignificant. Jj. A comma should not be inserted after any of the forms of the

verb to 6e, when used as a copula, or connecting link, between the subject and the predicate; or before a verb in the infinitive

mood, when preceded by another verb; as, “ The sole object of importance is the moral development of society.” —“ It ill becomes wise’

and good men to oppose and degrade one another.” Some writers’ would insert a comma; but the punctuating of such sentences as these, where the parts are so closely related, is unnecessarily stiff,

though between them a correct delivery requires a pause

ORAL EXERCISES.

;

Explain how it is, that, according to the sizth Rule (p. 50), commas are unnecessary in the following propositions :—

Nature has given all men some conceptions of immortality. The region beyond the grave is not a solitary land.

Simplicity of life and manners produces tranquillity of mind. The Almighty sustains and conducts the universe,

Human affairs are in continual motion and fluctuation.

To calculate shrewdly is different from meditating wisely. An Epicurean world makes an Epicurean God. The earth-clod of the globe has been divinely breathed upon. Aptitude for business is not power of reason. The best monuments of the virtuous are their actions. Misery is the necessary result of a deviation from rectitude.

Sensitiveness to the approbation of virtuous men is laudable. The streams of small pleasures fill the lake of happiness. Intemperance is the grossest abuse of the gifts of Providence. ' A desire of knowledge is natural to the mind of man.

“Know thyself” is a useful and comprehensive precept. His being a scholar prevented any gross mistake in his style. To be proud and inaccessible is to be timid and weak. He who masters his passions conquers his greatest enemy.

Our intellectual powers may be indefinitely enlarged.

p. 68

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

~ Mention why, in accordance with the Remarks on pages 50-54, the sentences that follow are pointed or unpointed with commas : —

Light, whether it be material or spiritual, is the best reformer. He who teaches, often learns himself. |

Those who were not so, became cringing and hypocritical He who made it, now preserves and governs it.

A youth, a boy, a child, might understand the question. Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention several of the constellations.

The idea of what ought to be, rises up from the bosom of whatis Whoever firmly wills, will be a good man. Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me.

The careless poet of Avon, was he troubled for his fame? And Harry’s flesh it fell away. — But John he cried in vain.

He seemed wanting in every good affection, Nero. He groweth rich, that fawning and supple parasite. It needs a divine man to exhibit any thing divine. It is our duty to appropriate our time to valuable purposes. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Insert commas only where required by the preceding Remarks : —

Reason and true philosophy never attempt, in their conclusions, to separate God from his works. (Rule, and last of Remark g 4.) » Times of general calamity and confusion have ever been prroductive of the greatest minds.*

Itis not in our power to change the established order ofthings

(Remark 7, and Rule.)

Patience with the erring and offending is one of the holiest of all

forms of character.

He who being master of the fittest moment to crush his enemy magnanimously neglects it is born to be a conqueror. (Rem. c¢, g 4.) One of the arts that tend most to the improvement of human intellectis the art of language.

Philosophy, religion tend to promote just and honorable views of the Creator of the universe. . (First.of Remark g 2.) The most sublime speculation of the contemplative philosopher can scarcely compensate for the neglect of the smallest active duty. The highest art of the mind of man is to possess itself with tranquillity in the hour of danger. (Rule, and Remark /.)

* The sentences, in this exercise, to which no references are atteched, may be

compared with the Rule and with Remarks a—e, pp. 50, 51.

p. 69

THE COMMA.

To mourn deeply for the death of another loosens from myself the petty desire for life.

(Remark g 5.)

The vigorous character of composition depends on the decision with which the mind grasps a truth.

That our age holds an amount of refinement and civilization that preceding ages did not have seems evident.

(Remark g 6.)

An excessive or indiscriminate reading of novels and romances is exceedingly injurious to the young.

To live soberly, righteously, and piously comprehends the whole of our duty.

(Remark g 1

or 8.)

Sincere respect for the men. of early times may be joined with a clear perception of their weaknesses and errors.

He who loves the bristle of bayonets only sees in their glitter what beforehand he felt in his heart.

(Remark g 1.)

To walk beneath the porch is still infinitely less than to kneel before the cross.

The swan whose neck is out of all proportion to his body is the

most beautiful of all birds.

(Remark c.)

The great sources of intellectual power and progress to a people are its strong and original thinkers.

He who troubles himself more than he needs grieves also more than is necessary.

(Remark g 6

or 7.)

The grammatical points are not sufficient to indicate either the number or the duration of the pauses.

Intelligence, beauty, and modesty are the principal charms of

woman.

(Remark g 2, last sentence.)

The impartial distribution of posthumous fame or censure must

have some effect on the most callous and unprincipled. He that shall endure unto the end the same shall be saved.

(First

of Remark g 8.)

He who follows the pleasures of the world is in constant search of care and remorse. Joy, grief, love, admiration, devotion are all of them passions

which are naturally musical.

(Remark g 2, first portion.)

The highest literature and art of every age embody its highest spiritual ideal of excellence.

Silent and severe they sit those men of the old fearless time. (Remark h.)

He who has never studied the consequences of human actions per-

ceives, m the great concourse of mankind, only a multitude of beings consulting each his own peculiar interest.

(Remark g 4 or 5.)

p. 70

RELATIVE CLAUSES. RULE

VU.

Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses.

§ I. A comma is put before a relative clause, when it is explanatory of the antecedent, or presents an additional thought.

§ II.

But the point is omitted before a relative

which restricts the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense. EXAMPLES.

§ I.

. Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die. . Study nature, whose laws and phenomena are all deeply interesting.

. The father of history was Herodotus, from whom we have an account of

. Every teacher must love a boy who is attentive and docile.

. Channing has set forth great and universal truths, that cannot perish. . These were small states, in which every man felt himself to be important

. Happy are the people whose history is the most wearisome to read.

the Persian war.

§ II.

3. Urbanity often lends a grace to actions that are of themselves ungracious. ox

4. Some men engage in labors in which they afterwards take no delight. . It is barbarous to injure those from whom we have received a kindness. REMARKS.

a. By comparing any of the examples in the first class with its

corresponding one or any other in the second, it will at once be seen that they are essentially different as to the senses intended to

be conveyed. In the former class, the clause at the beginning of the sentence, which contains the antecedent, is of a general character: that at the end—the relative clause— presents something additional, or explanatory of what has been said. In the latter class, the antecedent clause lays down a proposition which is restrained or limited in its sense by the relative.

b. If a relative clause which is explanatory of the antecedent be placed between the extremities of a sentence, a comma is required

both after the antecedent word or phrase, and before that verb of which it is the nominative; as, ‘ Slaves and savages, sho receive no education, are proverbially indolent.’’ — See p. 64.

p. 71

THE COMMa.

c. But, if the nominative is accompanied by a limiting relative clause, — or, to speak more accurately, if the subject is composed of an antecedent and a relative clause, — both points should be omitted;

as, ‘The man who is faithfully attached to religion may be relied on

with confidence.”

For, were a comma placed after either “man” or “ religion,’’ or after words corresponding to these in similar sentences, a separation would be made between paris, which, from their restrictive character, are obviously inseparable.— See p. 51, d, e.

d. When, however, the antecedent consists of nouns or phrases

between which commas are required, a comma should also be inserted before the relative clause, though restrictive; as, “ There are many dreams, fictions, or theories, which men substitute for truth.”

Were the comma after “theories” omitted, the connection between ‘“‘ which ’? and the preceding noun would seem to be closer than that existing between the relative pronoun and the other particulars, to

which it has an equal relation;

and such an omission would, in

many instances, tend to hinder a perception of the sense. _e A comma may also be put before the relative pronoun, even when restrictive, if it is immediately followed by a word or an expression enclosed by commas, and especially if the antecedent is

qualified by an adjective; as, “It was only a few discerning friends, who, in the native vigor of his powers, perceived the dawn of Robertson’s future eminence.’? The reasons offered for this mode of punctuating are, that the adjective has some effect to loosen the restraining power of the relative

over the

antecedent;

and that

the omission of the comma between the two portions of such a

sentence

— between “friends” and “who” in the present exam-

ple would draw the pronoun more closely to the clause which

precedes it, than to that of which it forms a part.

_f. By some writers and printers, a comma is always put before the relative, though used restrictively, if separated by several words from its grammatical antecedent; as, “It is power of thought and

utterance,

which

immortalizes

the

products

preaches sublimely, who lives a righteous

genius.’? — “ He

and pious

life.”

But

we have little hesitation in saying, that the punctuation is in both examples erroneous.

In the former, the antecedent “ power’

accompanied with the inseparable modifying phrase, “of thought

and utterance;” the sense being, not that power, but that the power of thought and utterance, immortalizes the products of genius.

the latter example, it will be seen that the proper construction is, ‘‘ He who lives a righteous and pious life preaches sublimely;” and

p. 72

RELATIVE CLAUSES.

‘that, in this collocation of the words, the comma would be correctly left out between the antecedent and the relative. If, therefore, a separation be made in the construction between words which are closely united in sense, as in the instances given, that separatiog, instead of being increased by the introduction of a point, should be made as little as possible by omitting it.

g. To the preceding remark the only exception is when the relative might improperly be read so as to refer to a proximate term; as, “ Creeds too often carry, in their ruins, the seeds of that faith in the divine and eternal, without which our nobler nature starves and perishes.”

h. To prevent ambiguity, a comma is sometimes put before tne

words, of which, of whom, even when used restrictively, to dis-

tinguish the preposition from that which connects two nouns, one

of which governs the other; as, “ Compassion is an emotion, of which you should never be ashamed.’?—‘‘No thought can be just, of which good sense is not the groundwork.” —“ No thought, of

which good sense is not the groundwork, can be just.” The insertion of the point will distinguish phrases of this kind from such as occur in the following sentences: “ Compassion is an emotion of grief for —‘“ The actions of princes are like those the sufferings of others.” great rivers, the courses of which every one beholds, but whose springs have been seen by few.’? It may be remarked too, that, when the relative pronoun does not immediately follow the clause containing the antecedent, the comma omitted before the relative is inserted between the two portions of the sentence, as after the word “rivers ” in the last example.

i. The principles stated in both divisions of the rule are applicable to sentences in which an adverb is put for a relative pronoun;

as, “The philosophers took refuge in Persia, where [in which country] they soon became dispersed.””—“ Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby [by which] the operations of the universe are conducted.”

j Sentences in which the relative pronoun may be supplied are subject to the same rules as those in which it is expressed; as, “ Genius is not a single faculty of the mind, distinct from all the — rest.” —“ Genius is not a faculty of the mind separate from all the rest.’

In both forms of the example, the relative pronoun

with the verb — which is—is understood after the word “ mind;” but in the former the comma is used, because the first clause makes perfect sense of itself, and the second is explanatory. In

p. 73

THE COMMA.

the latter form, the comma is omitted, for the reason that both clauses are so blended as to be inseparable in sense; the first being restrained or limited in its meaning by the second. The following sentence contains past participles, used in both an explanatory and

a restrictive sense, and punctuated accordingly: “ Poets are by no

means wingless angels, fed with ambrosia plucked from Olympus, or manna rained down from heaven.”

k. When a present participle is put instead of a relative and a verb, the insertion or omission of the comma will also depend on the principle just stated; as, “The path of mere power is that

of the cannon-ball, destroying [which destroys] every thing in its

course.’’? — “ There are moral principles slumbering in the souls of .

the most depraved.”

. Sometimes, however, a restrictive clause of the kind mentioned in the two foregoing remarks should be preceded by a comma, when, its antecedent being removed at some distance from the relative pronoun, the latter is in danger of being connected too closely with a hearer noun; as, ‘ Commercial nations have an apathy to amusement, distinct from mere gravity of disposition.” A comma may also be inserted before and after a clause beginning with an adjective or a

past participle, if introduced between the extremities of a sentence,

in order to show the alliance of the nominative with its verb, or of

one noun with another; as, “ A man, distinguished for his virtues and attainments, 7s commonly respected.”

m. When the ellipsis may be supplied with the adverb when, involvingin its signification a nominative or a relative and a verb, a comma should be inserted before two adjectives or participles, restrictive or unrestrictive, or an adjective or participle with words depending on it; as, “Man, ignorant and uncivilized, is a ferocious

savage.’? — *& The death of Socrates, philosophizing with his friends, is

the most pleasant that could be desired.”

n. When only the relative pronoun is understood, the antecedent should be left unpointed; as, “ The laws we reverence are our brave fathers’ legacy;’’ that is, the laws which we reverence.

o. Such as, when equivalent to a demonstrative and a relative pronoun, is subject to the second division of the rule; as, “ There

is no such partition in the spiritual world as you see in the material;”’ that is, there is not that partition which you see.

p. A semicolon is sometimes used before a relative pronoun,

particularly when it refers to an antecedent in a remote clause.

But this mode of punctuating will be best exhibited hereafter.

p. 74

RELATIVE CLAUSES.

ORAL EXERCISES.

State the principles in the seventh Rule (p. 57), and show how they may be applied to the sentences that follow : —

Avoid rudeness of manners, which must hurt the feelings of others. Every good man must love the country in which he was born. The child was much attached to Jane, who loved him dearly.

Those who are wealthy have great influence over others. Virtue is that to which the man himself contributes.

What is more wonderful than the human eye, that sees all around ? The subject should be held up in every light of which it is capable. Death is the season which brings our affections to the test. Turn not back from the good path on which you have entered. Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevolence. Ambition is the germ from which all growth of nobleness proceeds.

Christianity is a religion whose origin is unquestionably divine.

He who reads in a proper spirit can scarcely read too much. War is a tremendous evil, to which many have unhappily resorted.

Mention the reasons, given in the Remarks (pp. 57-60), for inserting or omitting commas in such sentences as the following :—

Satan, whom now transcendent glory raised above his fellows, spake.

The eye, that sees all things, sees not itself. Man, who is born of a woman, is of few days.

The credulity which has faith in goodness is a sign of goodness. He that is slow to anger is better and nobler than the mighty. . Where is the philosopher, the man, who would thus live and die? He questioned me of the battles, sieges, fortunes, that I have passed. The large book, which I bought years ago, has not yet been read.

No faculty lives within us which the soul can spare. Nothing is in vain that rouses the mind to thought and reflection. There is a craving for enjoyment, which cannot be destroyed in man, William left the city of New York, where he was doing well. Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony. Adopt a plan of life founded on religion and virtue. A great mind gazeth on the sun, glorying in its brightness. Genius addresses the consciousness existing in all men. | Physical science, separate from morals, parts with its chief dignity. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw.

Such as are careless of themselves are seldom mindful of others.

p. 75

- 62

THE COMMA,

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Punctuate, or leave unpointed, the following sentences, as required by the preceding Rule and Remarks (pp. 57-60): —

We should trace in all events the wisdom and benevolence of God from whom descendeth every good and perfect gift. (Rule, § I.) We read, with a reverential love, of men devoting themselves to

the interests of humanity.

(Last of Remark &.) The lever which moves the world of mind is emphatically the

printing-press.

(Rule, § u.; and Remark c.)

Youth is introductory to manhood to which it is a state of

preparation.

(Rule, § 1.)

To the Father of lights in whom there is no darkness are we in-

debted for all the blessings we enjoy.

(Rule, §1.; and Rem. 4, n.) There was nothing in the mind of Jesus of which you have not the principle and the capacity in yourself. (Remark h.) _

Some countries are infested with bands of robbers who attack (Rule, § 1.)

travellers in the open day.

Set at nought the grosser pleasures of sense whereof others are (Remark 7, compared with h.) .

slaves.

There is a philosophic spirit which is far more valuable than any

limited acquirements of philosophy.

(Rule, § m.)

The entrance ona new course awakens new energies and powers which rapidly unfold into life and vigor.

(Rule, § 1.)

Science and Poetry alike recognizing the order and the beauty of

the universe are alike handmaids of Devotion.

(Remark m.)

The brightest part of thy life is nothing but a flower which withers almost as soon as it has blown. (Rule, § 1.) /

Columbus was sent to the university of Padua where he acquired

such knowledge as was then taught.

(Remarks #, 0.)

Does the sentiment of patriotism reign in the common soldier who

hires himself to be shot at for a few centsa day?

(Rule, § 1.)

. A government directing itself resolutely and steadily to the general good becomes a minister of virtue.

(Remark m.)

May we be living flowers in those everlasting gardens of the Lord where angels and seraphs are the guardians!

(Remarks ¢ and g.) What are the moral influences of poverty its influences on charac-

ter which deserve our chief attention?

(Remark d.)

The Greeks may well boast of having produced a Euclid whose works are esteemed even by the profoundest mathematicians in:

modern times.

(Rule, §:1.)

p. 76

RELATIVE CLAUSES.

Go not from the world with the joyless consciousness of those to whom the fountains of its purest bliss have been sealed. (Rule, § 11.) You may treat life as a problem which has to be wrought out to

a successful result.

(Rule, § 1-)

There is no charm in‘the female sex which can supply the place

of virtue. (Rule, § 11.; and Remark /.)

Aid in reforming those socia] abuses the existence of which casts such a gloom and blight on the happiness of all. (Last of Rem. h.)

The benefit arising to us from an enlarged understanding cannot

well be overrated. (Last of Remark 4.)

_ The moral character is modified in some degree by the tastes and

habits of feeling imbibed from the situation in which men are

placed.

(Remark j; and Rule, § 1.)

A good reader will often pause where no grammarian would insert a point; and, on the other hand, he will sometimes neglect the commas he finds inserted by the writer. (Remarks ¢ and n.) The memory of the eyes that hung over a man in infancy and childhood will haunt him through all his after-life. (Rule, § 11; and .

Remark c.)

Macpherson who has given us some highly original images spoils half his work by forgetting that his bard was a Gaul. (Rule, § 1; and Remark 0.)

The superior wisdom of the present day consists in the better knowledge derived from experience of the limits of our faculties. (Remark J, last portion.)

Antiquity would have raised altars to that vast and mighty genius who, for the advantage of human kind, could tame the rage of thunder and of despotism.

(Remark e.)

He only is filled with the true spirit of devotion who recognizes, in the outward forms of beauty, the mind of Him who has chosen

this mode of intercourse with his trustful and adoring offspring.

(Remark f; and Rule, § 1.)

A peace worth all the specious goods which this world has at its disposal will ever be found in a simple and contented mind, in an affectionate heart, and in a pure and honorable life. (Last of Re- | mark J; and Rule, $ 1.)

That the memories of those most justly venerable and dear should throng around us with a new vitality, as life’s evening draws on, is scarcely reconcilable with the supposition, that the spirit of which such remembrances are the most precious possession is itself on the point of expiring for ever. (Rem. j, lines 8-11; and h, first portion.)

p. 77

THE COMMA.

RULE

VII.

Parenthetical Phrases and Clauses.

Expressions of a parenthetical or intermediate nature are separated from the context by commas. _ EXAMPLES.

1. The sun, with all its attendant planets, is but a very little part of the grand machine of the universe.

2. Books, regarded merely as a gratification, are worth more than all the luxuries on earth.

8. The man of refinement and sensibility finds himself, as it were, in accordance with universal nature.

4. A man of more than ordinary intellectual vigor may, for want of the faculty of expression, be a cipher in society.

REMARKS.

a. In punctuation there is perhaps no rule so well adapted as this for showing the construction and sense of passages, and yet none

seems to be less understood or observed by writers and printers. To prevent, therefore, any mistake, on the part of the pupil, as te the meaning of a parenthetical phrase or clause, and to enable him to insert the right points by distinguishing it with some degree of accuracy from the parenthesis, from which it derives its name, we may have to anticipate a little what will be laid down and illus-

trated in the next chapter.

6. A parenthesis and a parenthetical expression are alike in this respect, that each is a sentence, or a part of a sentence, enclosed within another. But the difference between these two kinds of intermediate sentences or phrases is, that parentheses are so used as to be susceptible of omission, without affecting either the sense or the construction of the main passage; while parenthetical expressions cannot be omitted, without diminishing the force or changing the import of that by which they are preceded and followed. The following examples will illustrate the difference spoken of, and at

the same time exhibit the proper modes of punctuation—:

1, It is probable that every planet (as the Creator has made nothing in vain) is inhabited.

2. The benevolent and pious man, even when persecuted, is, on the whole,a happy man.

p. 78

PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

The first of these sentences exemplifies the parenthesis, with its appropriate marks; the second, such expressions as are merely parenthetical or intermediate. In the former sentence, the main sentiment would be perfect, both as to its sense and the construction of the language, if the intermediate clause were thrown out from its present place; in the latter, the omission of the phrases between — “even when persecuted,’ and “on the whole” — the commas would sensibly affect the meaning intended to be conveyed. For the sake of distinction and convenience, this easy kind of paren-

thesis loses the more generic name, and is commonly termed a |

parenthetical expression.

c. Many short expressions which were formerly enclosed within marks of parenthesis, and which, on account of their construction

differing from that of the other portions of the sentence, may pro-

perly be called parentheses, are now usually pointed off by commas;

as, “ Study, J beseech you, to store your minds with the exquisite learning of former ages.’”” —“ ‘ Thirst for glory,’ says a great writer, ‘is often founded on ambition and vanity.’” As these short expressions interfere but slightly with the unity of thought conveyed in the context, commas are preferable to the parenthetical marks. d. Many writers are accustomed to omit the comuna, in all cases,

after a conjunction; but it is evident, that, when a word of this or

any other part of speech is divided by a phrase or clause from the portion of the sentence to which it belongs, such intervening expression should have a comma before as well as after it, as in the following example: “ Agamemnon still lives before us in the ‘tale of Troy divine;’ but, were not his name embalmed in that imperishable song, there would not now be a wreck of it.”

e. Short phrases of a parenthetical kind, when closely united in sense to the context, and particularly when introduced into what is

itself parenthetical, should be left unpointed; as, ** Poesy can portray

with much energy the excesses of the passions.” This is further

— exemplified in the intermediate clause of the remark just made,

“when closely united in sense to the context;’? in which the Italicized words partake somewhat of the nature of a parenthetic phrase, but are better read in union with the words that precede and follow them.

jf. Conjunctions, adverbs or adverbial phrases, words or expressions in a direct address, and absolute or other phrases, are some-

times used parenthetically; but, occurring as they do in a variety of ways, their punctuation will be best explained under different rules. i)

p. 79

THE COMMA. ORAL EXERCISES.

Assign the reason, as given in the eighth Rule, for the insertion of commas in the following sentences : —

A contract, to be valid, must be for some legal object or purpose.

Every passion, however base or unworthy, is eloquent. Some men are refined, like gold, in the furnace of affliction.

It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world. Nature, through all her works, delights in variety. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. A spiritual nature, to grow in power, demands spiritual liberty. The ocean, in its mighty heavings, makes you serious. Dismiss, as soon as may be, all angry and wrathful thoughts.

But, if education cannot do every thing, it can do much. Let us sénd light and joy, if we can, to every one around us. Man, in his highest mood of thought, aspires to God.

There, where knowledge ceases, faith should strongest prove. Take your lot, as it is assigned you, without murmuring or complaint

Christianity, in the highest sense, is the religion of sorrow.

Why, according to the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 64, 65), are the parenthetical

expressions in the following sentences pointed or unpointed ? —

Thou knowest, come what may, that the light of truth cannot be put out.

Of nothing may we be more sure than this, that, if we cannot sanctify our present lot, we could sanctify no other. The travellers set out early, and, before the close of the aayy

arrived at the destined place.

But, in the formation of character, we know that man is ‘to lay its

foundations for himself. Yet, after leaving school, Cowper threw away the next twenty oI

thirty years of his life almostin doing nothing.

We can sometimes trace extraordinary skill in the liberal arts to

the existence of a quarry of fine marble. Civilization, which on the whole has never gone backward, is new-shaped and modified by each particular people. The greatest of all human benefits, that at least without which no

other benefits can be truly enjoyed, is independence.

Burke and Paine were incarnations of the spirits whose conflict has for ages divided the world.

p. 80

PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

67.

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Punctuate the parenthetical expressions, except those te which Remark ®, p. 65, will apply :—

A single hour in the day steadily given to the study of an interesting subject brings unexpected accumulations of knowledge. (Rule.) Benevolonce is on whatever side we may contemplate the subject a godlike virtue.

(Rule.)

True it is, that were we cast from birth into solitude we should

grow up in brutalignorance. (Rule, and Remark d.) Excellence is in any position almost the infallible result of the determination to excel.

(Rule.)

“ The virtuous man” it has been beautifully said “ proceeds without constraint in the path of his duty.’

(Remarks c, e.)

‘In Dante for the first time in an uninspired bard the dawn of a

spiritual day breaks upon us.

(Rule.)

A people should honor and cultivate as unspeakably useful that literature which calls forth the highest faculties. (Rule.) Simple truths when simply explained are more easily comprehended I believe than is commonly supposed. (Rule, and Remark c.) I would stamp God’s name and not Satan’s upon every innocent pleasure.

(Rule.)

Fanaticism in its ill sense is that which makes a man blind to perceive the falseness of an error. (Rule.) Cursed be the verse how well soe’er it flow That tends to make one worthy man my foe.

(Rule.)

I maintain, that as knowledge. extends the range of all imagery is enlarged; and what is far more important that the conception kindles by the contemplation of higher objects. (Remarks c, d.) The love of the beautiful and true like the dewdrop in the heart of the crystal remains for ever clear and liquid in the inmost shrine of man’s being. (Rule, and Remark e.) Numerous instances there have been as every reader knows of those who have thrown down every obstacle in the way of their (Remark c.)

mental elevation.

Without fairness of mind which is only another phrase for dis-

interested love of truth great native powers of understanding are perverted.

(Rule.)

We cannot see an individual expire though a stranger or an

enemy without being prompted by compassion to lend him every assistance in our power. (Rule, and Remark e.)

p. 81

THE COMMA.

RULE

IX.

Vocative Words, Phrases, and Clauses.

A word or an expression, denoting a person or an

object addressed, is separated by a comma from the rest of the sentence. EXAMPLES.

1. Antonio, light my lamp within my chamber. 2. Take these two savages to your care, Charon. 8. Boast not, my dear friends, of to-morrow. REMARKS.

a. When the terms or expressions ina direct address indicate awe, wonder, or any other strong emotion, it is better to use after them the note of exclamation; as, “ My sister! O my sister!” b. For the punctuation of the personal pronoun in a vocative © expression, see page 42, Remark j.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Assign the reason for the insertion of commas in the following sentences : —

Sir, I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your long-expected letter. I am obliged to you, ladies, for the kindness you have shown. Come hither, Moor. — What would you, Desdemona? From childhood, seignior, you have been my protector. Idle time, John, is the most ruinous thing in the world. Come, companion of my toils, let us take fresh courage. All hope abandon, ye who enter here. —I am, dear madam, yours. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Punctuate these sentences in accordance with the above Rule:—

Continue my dear James to make virtue your principal study. Acquire my daughters the habit of doing every thing well. Descend from heaven Urania. — You weep good Ethelbert. Sir the declaration will inspire the people with increased courage. This my lords is a perilous and tremendous moment.

Verres what have you to advance against this charge? Morning is the best tims to study my beloved children. Thou who despisest the outward forms Jose not the inward spirit.

p. 82

PARTICIPIAL AND ABSOLUTE PHRASES. RULE

Adjectival, Participial, and Absolute Phrases.

Adjectival, participial, and absolute phrases are each separated by a comma from the remainder of the sentence. EXAMPLES.

. Awkward in his person,

James was ill qualified to command respect.

. Cradied in the camp, Napoleon was the darling of his army. . Ilaving approved of the plan, the king put it into execution.

Owe

. To speak candidly, I do not understand the subject.

. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune . Generally speaking, the conduct of that man is honorable. REMARKS.

a. The first three examples show the punctuation of adjectival and participial phrases, each of these being separated by a comma from the clause which follows, and with which it is associated.

The

next three severally exhibit that of phrases containing the nomina-

tive, the infinitive, and the participle absolute; so called because they are grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence in which they occur.

_6. The phrase which begins the following sentence may be treated

as an example of the imperative absolute, and should therefore be

pointed as the other independent phrases: “ Take him for ail in all, I shall not look upon his like again.”’

c. The nominative absolute when used pleonastically, or the

expression to which it belongs, is also divided by a comma from

what follows it; as, “ The captain, 1 hope he will not act thus.” — “ He that hath ears to hear, \et him hear.”

d. Though followed by a participle, a nominative, if it be the sub. ject of a verb, is not absolute or independent. — In this construction, a comma, should be inserted both before and after the participial phrase;

s, “ He, being dead, yet speaketh.’? — See p. 50, ¢. e. All the phrases referred to, when used intermediately or parenthetically, are enclosed by commas; as, “James, awkward in his person, was ill qualified to command respect.’”? — See p. 64.

f. The objective absolute or independent is subject to the same kind of punctuation; as, “ Alfred, than whom a greater king never

reigned, deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns.”

p. 83

THE COMMA.

g. If placed at the end of the sentence, such phrases should each

be preceded by a comma; as, “ His conduct is honorable, generally

speaking.’ But elegance or perspicuity of style will seldom permit this change of position in phrases used independently.

h. In respect, however, to those adjectival and participial phrases before which a relative pronoun, in its restrictive sense, is understood, the comma should be omitted. — See p. 59, 7, second example; and p. 60, &, last example.

i. The absolute phrases, to proceed, to conclude, &c., when placed | at the beginning of a paragraph, to the whole of which they refer, are better pointed with a colon.

ORAL EXERCISES.

Recite the tenth Rule, which lays down the principle for inserting commas in the following and similar sentences : —

' Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. — He being dead, we shall live. Speaking in round numbers, he made fifty thousand dollars. Crowded in filth, the poor cease to respect one another. To confess the truth, I was greatly to blame for my indiscretion. We being exceedingly tossed, they lightened the ship. Partial in his affections, he was ill fitted to acquire general love. H. Tooke having taken orders, he was refused admission to the bar. The sun having risen, we departed on our journey. His father being dead, the prince succeeded to the throne. Raising his head from the earth, man looks before and after. Incensed with indignation, Satan stood unterrified. How do the Remarks apply to the punctuation of the following sentences ? —

Regard him as you may, I think that he is a dangerous man. Timothy Taylor, may he always thus act and speak! We, being exceedingly tossed, lightened the ship. The prince, his father being dead, succeeded to the throne. This is, to say nothing worse, highly reprehensible. His conduct, generally speaking,is highly honorable.

We set outin the journey of life, full of spirit and highin hope.

The lady was agreeable, being formed with the qualities that we love. We may smile at misfortune, peace of mind being secured. Then came Jesus, the doors being shut, and stood in the midst. I never sought an opportunity of meeting him, to tell you the truth. Let them attend, all they who feel interested in this great subject.

p. 84

PARTICIPIAL AND ABSOLUTE PHRASES.

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Let the following sentences be pointed according to Rule X. or the Remarks : —

Full of desire to answer all demands the truly benevolent do not think it troublesome to aid the cause of the wretched.

(Rule.)

There are to confess the truth few who are fully qualified for the

high office of governing their fellows.

(Remark e¢.)

Employed in little things an elevated genius appears like the sun in his evening declination.

(Rule.)

Horne Tooke having taken orders was refused admission to the

bar.

(Remark d.)

Having the inward life men cannot conceal it; treasures they will not hoard them.

having divine

(Rule.)

A state of ease is generally speaking more attainable than a state of pleasure.

(Remark e.)

Virtue being abandoned we become terrified with imaginary

evils.

(Rule.)

Those who are truly my friends let them come to my assistance.

(Remark c.)

To supply this deficiency the Creator endowed him with nobler qualities of intellect.

(Rule.)

Physicians the disease once discovered think the cure half

wrought.

(Remark e.)

Surpassing the boast of the too-confident Roman Napoleon but stamped on the earth, and a creation of enchantment arose.

(Rule.)

‘This gentleman take him for all in all possessed a greater variety of knowledge than any man I ever knew.

(Remarks 4, e.)

Overwhelmed with shame and remorse the soul feels itself shut out from heaven.

(Rule.)

God, from the mount of Sinai, whose grey top Shall tremble he descending will himself

Ordain their laws.

(Remark e.)

To take some men at their word you would suppose they believed that only one class in society was entitled to consideration.

(Rule.)

Ores are called native or natural compounds being produced by nature.

(Remark g.)

I beingin the way, the Lord led me to the house of my master’s brother.

(Rule.)

Thereis no single period of history, which all things being taken into consideration will allow us to be indifferent to the progress of mankind.

(Remark e.)

p. 85

THE COMMA.

RULE

Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases.

Adverbs or adverbial phrases, when used as con-

nectives, or when they modify net single words, but clauses or sentences, are éach followed by a comma;

and, if used intermediately, they admit a comma before as well as after them. EXAMPLES.

1. Why, these are testimonies of what the unfriended may do. 2. I proceed, thirdly, to point out the proper state of our temper. 8. On the other hand, let not the imagination be ungovernable. 4. Punctuality is, no doubt, a quality of high importance.

5. The most vigorous thinkers and writers are, in fact, self-taught. REMARKS.

a. The following words, with others of a similar kind, are pointed in accordance with the rule: — Again, further, moreover, once more, as yet, yea, nay, why, well, first, secondly, finally, accordingly, consequently, unquestionably, indisputably, namely, at present, in truth, in short, in fine, in general, in particular, in the meantime, in the next place, in all probability, of late, of course, above all, nevertheless, doubtless, without doubt, true (used for indeed), that is (for namely), on the one hand, on the contrary, for the most part, now and then. b. When any of the adverbs or adverbial phrases in the preceding list, or others of a like character, are used to qualify single words, the commas should be omitted; as, ‘‘ The lecture was again delivered.” — ‘Some men are in the highest degree mystical.”

c. Besides the adverbs and adverbial expressions which qualify

single words, many of those relating to the whole clause or sentence in which they occur are sometimes written and printed without commas; as, “ Perhaps 1 will give it.’—“ He was formerly a wealthy

citizen.”’ The omission of the point is recommended wherever the adverb readily coalesces with the context, as it does in the examples just given.

a. If, however, there is any harshness in the construction or the

collocation, the adverbial word or expression may be set off by commas; as, “ Poverty, perhaps, has been the most fertile source of literary crimes ”’

p. 86

ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.

e. The insertion or the omission of commas in respect to such

words as hence, also, seems, in general practice, to be a matter of taste or caprice.

But, except when required by peculiar reasons,

the points are better omitted; for, in general, these adverbs unite

very readily with the context; as, “‘ Hence have arisen dangerous factions.” — “ The earth is also clothed with verdure.”’

Jj. Here and there, when used antithetically before an adjective

or a noun, and placed at the beginning of a clause or sentence,

should be each followed by a comma; as, “ Here, every thing is in stir and fluctuation: there, all is serene and orderly.”” Commonly, however, these words do not require to be punctuated. g. When two intermediate adverbs, not qualifying any particular word, come together, that which coalesces least with the other poxtions of the sentence should alone have a comma both before and after it; as, “ There were, surely, always pretenders in science.”

h. Many words ranked as adverbs are sometimes employed cou-

junctively, and require a different treatment in their punctuation.

When used as conjunctions, however, now, then, too, indeed, are divided by commas from the context; but when as adverbs, qualifying the words with which tkey are associated, the separation should not be made. This distinction will be seen from the following examples: — 1. HowEver. — We must, however, pay some deference to the opinions of the wise, however much they are contrary to our own.

2 Now.-——I have now shown the consistency of my principles; and, now, . what is the fair and obvious conclusion? 8. Taen.—On these. facts, then, I then rested my argument, and after_ wards made a few general observations on the subject. 4. Too. —I

found, too, a theatre at Alexandria, and another at Cairo; but

he who would enjoy the representations must not be too particular. 5. InpEeED.— The young man was indeed culpable in that act, though, indeed, he conducted himself very well in other respects.

When placed at the end of a sentence or a clause, the conjunction too must not be separated from the context by a comma; as, “I would that they had changed voices to.” t. The particle therefore, which is used sometimes as an adverb, and sometimes as a conjunction, may be set off by commas when it is of a parenthetical nature, or obstructs the flow of the composition, and left unpointed when it coalesces easily with the other parts of the sentence; as, “ Music has charms, and therefore ought to be admired: if, therefore, you have an opportunity of learning that delightful art, study it with avidity.”

p. 87

THE COMMA.

j- Besides, when used as a preposition, should not be punctuated; but, when occurring as an adverb or a conjunction, a comma is

required after, and, if occurring intermediately, also one before it; as, “ Besides him, there was another man who acted in the same manner: there were present, besides, several ladies, who seemed to give their approbation.”,

The same remark is applicable to the word -

notwithstanding. k. Though the examples in Remarks h, i, 7, are not to he regarded

as models of composition, they probably illustrate the use of the

comma, by the juxtaposition of the particles, much better than if these were put separately in sentences less liable to critical objection. l. Used adverbially, yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, &c., are, like the adverbs of time, now, then (Remark h), not separated by points from the words with which they are connected; as, “John went yesterday

to Cincinnati.” m. All adverbial words or phrases, if followed by a parenthetical

expression, must, according to p. 64, have a comma after them; but, if finishing a sentence or a clause, they should have that point which is required by their position. m. When an adverbial word or phrase comes between two phrases

or clauses, it must be separated by a comma only from that expres-

sion which it does not qualify; as, “ He was saved, for a time at least, from a relapse.”” —“ Though Nature has given to all her children

some conceptions of immortality, std her information is far from proving satisfactory.” ORAL EXERCISES.

Show how the punctuation in these sentences corresponds to Rule X1.:—

Lastly, let me repeat what I stated at the beginning of my lecture.

Such, undoubtedly, is the characteristic of genuine virtue.

On the contrary, I believe that truth is the great inspirer. There is, now and then, a youth of more than youthful powers. He made the most, mentally, of whatever came in his way. Undoubtedly, the statement he has made is not correct. There are many ends, doubtless, for which each thing exists.

But, lastly, let us examine the truth of these arguments. In fact, modern civilization is a corrupted Christianity.

Such, in general, is the humiliating aspect of the tomb. Accordingly, the chronicles of the middle ages teem with crimes.

The national life, in short, is to a certain extent diseased. Well, proceed with the speech which you have so well begun.

p. 88

ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.

vas)

According to Remarks on pages 72-74, assign reasons for the punctuation of the adverbial er conjunctive words and phrases which occur in the following sentences, or for the umission of commas :—

At present, the individual is often crushed by circumstances. True, the rooms of the poor are not lined with works of art. Let us further consider the arguments on this subject. My high-blown pride at length broke under me.

How inconceivably thin and tender are the threads of a spider! Let us, in the first place, observe the inanimate world. That is, there is a true way of expressing truth.

Well, I call conversation the sweet interchange of thought. I do not well know why I should think of it in any other respect.

Ay, love the good and the beautiful. — Aye love the good, &e. He first went to New York, and afterwards to Philadelphia. Attend, first, to the literal sense; and, secondly, to the metaphoricat. Probably there are few who ever accomplish as much as they expected. Few, probably, ever accomplish as much as they expected. Why do you trust your character to be evolved by accident?

If I cannot perform my promise, why, I will regret having made it. Hence all human laws are more or less imperfect.

Here also is the distinction between faith and mere assent. I am inclined, however, to believe this to be a mistaken opinion. However great Napoleon was as a general, he was not a good man.

Now, feudalism is the embodiment of Satanic pride.

Now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also Tam known. of wisdom to live virtuously and devoutly. It is, then, a mark Have not you, too, gone about the earth like an evil genius? We look at all things too exclusively from our own point of view. If she trust the stars above, they can prove treacherous too, True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in mere speech. Professors Bentley and Porson were scholars indeed. Our civilization, therefore, is not an unmixed good. Therefore is our civilization not an unmixed good.

A certain degree of moral culture, therefore, must be presupposed. A certain degree of moral culture must therefore be presupposed. Besides this, it may be of the greatest advantage to you in business.

It may, besides, be of the greatest advantage to you in business.

They, notwithstanding, had much love to spare.

A man may be rich, notwithstanding pecuniary losses. We shall perhaps leave the city to-morrow morning.

Yet, fair as thou art, thou shunnest to expose thyself to the public.

p. 89

THE COMMA. EXERCISE TO

WRITTEN.

Insert commas only where required by Rule XI. and Remarks (pp. 72-74): —

Hence the organs of sense are probably in a state of the greatest sensibility in an early period of life.

(Remarks e, c.)

Shakspeare was the most brilliant example unquestionably of a triumph over the defects of education.

(Rule, and Remark a.) | The children of our cottagers too appear to derive peculiar plea-

sure from the soft breath of spring.

(Remark h 4.)

As yet science has hardly penetrated beneath the surface of

nature.

(Rule, and Remark a.)

Characters endowed with great excellences will unfortunately

often stand in need of great allowances.

(Remark g.)

Do we in a word reduce the whole of human duty to a bald and

punctilious discharge of worldly business?

(Rule.)

However much he was persecuted, he loved his persecutors not

the less.

(Remarks 4, h 1.)

The happiness of the dead however is affected by none of’ these

considerations.

(Remark h 1.)

First men of uncommon moral endowments may be expected to

be men of uncommon intellectual powers.

(Rule, and Remark a.)

If therefore you find that you have a hasty temper, watch it nar-

rowly.

(Remark 2.)

The Greeks were great reasoners; and their language accordingly abounds in connectives.

(Rule, and Remark a.)

This was the object to which the meeting first directed its atten-

tion.

(Remark 0.)

His prudent conduct may heal the difference; nay may prevent any misunderstanding in future.

(Rule, and Remark a.)

Having now removed the objections made to our conduct, I shall take up very little more of your lordships’ time.

(Remarks 8, h 2.)

There was great scarcity of corn, and consequently dearth of all other victuals.

(Rule, and Remarks a, d.)

Every thing that grows is a world probably of uncounted myriads

of beings.

(Rule, and Remark d.)

Sooner or later insulted virtue avenges itself on states, as well as on private men.

(Rule.)

The author therefore commences his undertaking by an analysis

of names.

(Remark 7.)

Without being rash on the one hand or fearful on the other we shall find all things working together for good. (Remark 7.)

p. 90

ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.

Christ stands immeasurably in advance of the moral attainments of the world. (Remark 0.) And hence perhaps it is that Solomon calls the fear of the Lord the beginning of wisdom. (Remark g.) The lateral force of human action that is the influence of con-

temporaries, is great. (Rule, and Remark a.) Meanwhile we do not believe in any infallible specific, in any sudden and unusual remedy. (Rule.) But yesterday the word of Cesar might have stood against the (Remark 1.) Sometimes doubts and apprehensions will naunt the mind in its

world.

searchings for truth. (Rule.) But on the other hand do not suppose that poverty is altogether a waste and howling wilderness. (Rule, and Remark c.)

There is undoubtedly very often more happiness in the hut than

in the palace. (Rule, and Remark g.) Nature has indeed given us a soil which yields bounteously to the hand of industry. But what are lands, &c. (Remark h 5.)

Society must of course receive beauty into its character and

(Rule, and Remark a.) Let us contemplate then this connection, which binds the pro-

feeling.

sperity of others to our own.

(Remark h 3.)

Still a great and fruitful idea dimly pervades the eccentric speculations of Fourier. (Rule, and Remark 6.) We shvuld look on character acquired here as the condition of

happiness hereafter. (Remark c, and last of f\) | At present innumerable prejudices obstruct a complete extraction of the mental and moral wealth latent in society.

(Rule, and

Remark a.)

Did I not see other and holier influences than the sword working out the regeneration of our race, I should indeed despair. (Remarks

c, h 5.)

Again perfection requires that each quality should be without

debasing alloy. Lastly perfection requires that all the graces be expanded to an unlimited degree. (Rule, and Remark a.) De Foe soon however relinquished every thing else for literature and politics; for which indeed his temper and talents adapted him much better than for business. (Remarks h 1, 5.)

Now how does capital punishment operate?

Why it cuts off the

offender from all the chance of reformation. Rule, and Remark a.)

(Remarks h 2 and 6;

p. 91

THE COMMA. RULE XI. Phrases at the End of Sentences or Clauses.

§ I. When a phrase beginning with a preposition, an adverb, or a conjunction, relates to or modifies a preceding portion of the sentence, a comma is unneces-

sary, if the parts are closely connected in sense. § IZ.

But the point must be inserted when its omis-

sion would occasion ambiguity, or when the phrase begins with a particle obstructing the connection which subsists between the different portions of the sentence. EXAMPLES.

§ L

1. For that agency he applied without a recommendation. 2. Cultivate your intellectual powers by habits of study and reflection

3. The idea is very happily applied under one of its forms. § IT.

1. He applied for that agency, without a recommendation 4. Cultivate your intellectual powers, especially by habits of study, &o. 8. The idea is very happily applied, at least under one of its forms. REMARKS. *

a. In the first three examples, the phrases beginning with the prepositions “ without,” “by,” “under,” are closely connected with

both portions of the sentence in which they severally occur, and therefore should not be preceded by a comma. 6. If, in the first example of the second class, the comma were omitted before the preposition “ without,” the sentence might be wrongly understood to mean, that a person applied for an agency,

without its having any recommendation in its favor. Of the next example, if written without the comma before the adverb “ espe-

cially,” the meaning might be, that, by habits of study and reflection, you should cultivate particularly your intellectual powers, that is, in preference to others; but this is not the sense.

In both of these

sentences, the insertion of the comma, as above, leads obviously to

the true signification.

In the last example, the sense is brought out more clearly by inserting a comma before the modifying words “at

p. 92

FINAL PHRASES.

least,’? because they belong rather to the phrase than to the whole clause, and obstruct the connection between “ applied” and “ under one of its forms.’’

c. When the use of a word qualifying the phrase interrupts but

slightly the connection between two parts of a sentence, the comma

is better omitted. Thus, though susceptible of. being pointed, the following sentences, where the final phrases are severally modified by the words either, even, may be written without the comma: “ A — “ The good man will be happy either in this world or the next.’? knowledge of nature cannot be exhausted even by the wisest.” d. But, if a final phrase conveys an additional thought, or is

preceded by another phrase, with which it does not readily unite,

the comma should be inserted; as, “ A strong idea of religion has generally prevailed, even among the most uncultivated savages.” — “The ode was frequently sung at his request, either in the church or at some occasional meeting of thg choir.” e. The rule is applicable to a sentence ending with two phrases, each beginning with a particle, which may be taken either separately or as a compound phrase; the last or both referring to some portion of what precedes.

jf. A phrase, at the end of a clause or sentence, of an antithetical character, is preceded by a comma; as, “ Man’s true destination is not perfection, but the unceasing perfecting of his nature.” — See Rule V., p. 45.

g- No point is required before a final phrase beginning with but, in the sense of except; as, “ None are poor but the mean in mind.” h. When a phrase begins with a verb in the infinitive mood, and its preposition signifies in order to, it should not be preceded by a comma; as, * We do not pray to God to instruct him.” Unless where the omission of the point would too closely unite the latter portion of the clause with the phrase; as, “ Our minds must go out into the infinite and immortal regions, io jind sufficiency and satisfaction for | the present hour.” i. If the words in order are expressed before the infinitive, the phrase is usually preceded by a comma; as, “We should be virtuous and devout, in order to refine and elevate our nature.” j. Final phrases, referring to time, measure, or distance, whether they begin with a preposition or are elliptical, should not be preceded

by any point; as, “ Byron was born on Jan. 22, 1788, and died April — 19, 1824... “The mason built the wall a hundred feet high.”” % Some men can easily walk four miles an hour.”

p. 93

THE COMMA.

k. But when the last phrase consists of a date, and the preceding one ends with a noun, it is better to distinguish the phrases by a

comma, unless they are connected by means of a preposition; as,

“The mills were destroyed by fire, Sept. 28, 1854.’” — “ Peace was concluded between England and France in February, 1763.”

ORAL EXERCISES.

State why, in conformity with Rule XII. (p. 78), commas are used in some of these sentences, and omitted in others : —

He was a man of extraordinary powers, both of mind and body.

The fertile earth is fragrant after soft showers.

Take heed not to place thyself in the power of temptation.

View the path you are entering on, with an enlightened mind. The grandeur of Rome has vanished like a spectrein the night. Poisons are sweetin the moral world, as truly as in the natural.

Do thy best to pluck this crawling serpent from my breast. Poverty of mind is often concealed under the garb of splendor. Repentance is not a single act, but a habit of virtue. Truth is not hidden from us by an impenetrable veil.

All great things are so, only by the assemblage of small things. Call off the thoughts when running upon disagreeable objects. Keep an inventory of your friends, rather than of your goods.

' Mention why, in accordance with the above Remarks, commas are inserted or omitted in the following sentences:—

Thou art a soldier even to Cato’s wishes. I knew the facts of the case even when I wrote to you. Judge not either capriciously or by a factitious standard. He was a Columbus in a brave heart, if not in achievement.

Virtue is not the creature of will, but necessary and immutable. Our best works are fractions, not complete and rounded unities. Nothing remained but to throw himself on the mercy of Heaven. Let me find a chartei in your voice to assist my simpleness.

He left the room to see whether all was safe. Cultivate the art of reading, in order to read well.

Patrick Kelly left Ireland seventeen years ago. You will be sure to find me in the school at nine o’clock, A.M

Adam Smith was born in Scotland, 1728, and died 1790.

The lyre was invented 1004 B.c.; and paper in China, 105 B.c.

p. 94

FINAL PHRASES. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

In agreement with the Rule and the Remarks (pp. 78-80), let commas be inserted or omitted in the following sentences : —

A year is much in human life particularly to the very young and

very old.

(Rule, § 1.)

Follow the:perfections of your enemies rather than the errors of

your friends. (Rule, § 11.; and Remark /-)

The love of praise should be preserved under proper subordina-

tion to the principle of duty. (Rule,§ 1.)

by the habitual contemplation of great The soul becomes great

‘ . objects. (Rule, § 1.) Do not employ your wit either to insult or to offend your asso|

(Remark c.)

ciates.

I often come to this quiet place to breathe the airs that ruffle thy

face.

(First of Remark h.)

A true philosopher is careful to preserve an evenness of mind

both in prosperity and adversity. (Rule, § II.)

‘How superior is the man of forbearance and gentleness to every other man in the collisions of society! (Rule, § 1.)

Christianity represents physical evil as the direct appointment of

God’s love.

(Rule, §°1.)

The active mind of man seldom or never rests satisfied with its

present condition how prosperous soever. (Rule, § 1.)

The saint owes much of the grace and elegance of his spirit to

the influences of sorrow in some form. (Rule, § 1.)

A great mind is formed by a few great ideas not by an infinity of loose details. (Rule, both sections; and Remarks e, SJ) The first indications of genius disclose themselves at a very early

period.

(Rule, § 1.)

The knowledge of any one truth acts as an introducer and inter-

preter between us and all its kindred truths. (Rule, § 1.)

We cannot bid farewell to so large a portion of human history

without deep and earnest thought. (Rule, § 11.)

Herbert always attracted friends and strangers by the elegance

and benignity of his manners.

(Rule, § 1)

Law should not be the rich man’s luxury but the poor man’s

remedy. (Rule, § u.; and Remark /.)

There are Christians who defer to some perpetual and concurrent authority either in a living person or in a body of persons. (Rule,

§ 1.3 and Remark d.)

p. 95

THE COMMA. The intellectual powers may be exercised to the neglect and

stifling of the moral and spiritual.

(Rule, § 11.)

Half of what passes among men for talent is nothing but strong aealth. (Rule, §1.; and Remark g.)

Sensible men show their good sense by saying much in a few (Ruie, § 1.)

words.

Shake not the credit of others in endeavoring to establish your (Rule, § 11.)

own.

Ariosto, the eminent Italian poet, was born in the year of our

Lord 1474, and died 1538.

(Remark j.)

Let your affections be cultivated with ardor and purity through all the successive periods of life.

(Rule, § 1.; and Remark e. ) Let us not think of the departed as looking on us with earthly,

partial affections.

(Rule, § 1.)

Who can look on this scene without an increase of love and

reverence and trust?

(Rule, § 1.)

The dormant faculties of men seem only to be awaiting more favorable circumstances to disclose themselves. (First of Rem. h.)

The soul is nursed for heaven by the discipline of a sacred sor(Rule, § 1.)

row.

The well-being of a community cannot flow from the simple effect of one great change however necessary or successful. (Rule, § 11.) The grandeur and vastness of human hope are corresponded to by a similar grandeur and vastness of human nature. (Rule, § 1.) Some men put on the appearance of virtue in order to succeed in

their nefarious enterprises.

(Rule, § u.; and Remark 7.)

There are many topics on which individuals may hold the greatest

diversity of opinion without any diminution of holy sympathy in the essential principles of religion.

(Rule, § 1.; and Remark e.)

Seek for distinction only among the honest and pious. distinction but only among the honest and pious. and Remarks ec, d.)

Seek for

(Rule, §§ L, u.;

: Let us employ the powers which our Creator has given us in such

a manner as will be fitted to purify and elevate our nature.

(Rule,

§ 11.)

Moral light must be intermingled with intellectual light to conduct us safely through our mortal course. (Rule, § m1; and last portion of Remark h.)

No man can struggle, for years together, to evolve his character into pure moral manhood without shedding around him a benignant,

life-giving influence.

(Rule, § 11.)

p. 96

INVERTED EXPRESSIONS. RULE

88 |

XII

Inverted or Transposed Expressions.

Many phrases which, in their natural or usual order, do not require to be punctuated, are, when inverted, set off by a comma from the rest of the sentence. EXAMPLES.

1. By Cowley, the philosopher Hobbes is compared to Columbus. 2. To the wise and good, old age presents a scene of tranquil enjoyment.

3. Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect and delightful. 4. In perusing the works of enlightened men, we ought to think much. REMARKS.

a. The natural or usual order of words in English composition,

if adopted in the above sentences, would run as follows: “ The

philosopher Hobbes is compared by Cowley to Columbus.” —“ Old age presents a scene of tranquil enjoyment to the wise and good.”? — “ Sight is the most perfect and delightful of all our senses.’””—“ We ought to think much in perusing the works of enlightened men.” It will be seen, that the phrases which have been punctuated in the examples, are, when put in the usual order, written without commas, in accordance with the first part of Rule XI, p. 78. b. In the inverted or rhetorical style in which these sentences are

exemplified under the rule, it is obvious, that, if the comma were omitted, we could not read or understand them, without a greater

exercise of the judgment than is required when that point is inserted after each transposed phrase.

c. But the rule, as commonly laid down by grammarians, is by no means universal in its application. The mere circumstance of the transposition of a word or phrase is not a sufficient reason for introducing a comma, as may readily be seen by inspecting either a single page of an author who adopts this style, or a few lines in any of the poets; and indeed, were all such inversions punctuated, both

perspicuity and good taste would be in numberless instances violated. On the other hand, actual usage is so discordant, that, in many cases,

it would seem to be a matter of mere choice, whether an inverted phrase should have a comma or not. By attention, however, to the various modes in which the sentences under notice are formed, most

of the practical difficulties would be overcome.

p. 97

THE COMMA.

d. In accordance with the remark just made, the comma shoula

be dispensed with under the following circumstances,— unless the inverted portions of a sentence are both of them clauses, or severally end and begin with words of the same part of speech, with a noun

and an adjective, or vice versé : — 1. When the first inverted portion contains a noun governed by a verb in the last part of the sentence; as, “‘ That interesting and valuable history he did not read.” —“ Him and his actions you will

very probably imitate.” —‘ The praise of judgment has Virgil justly contested with Homer.”

2. When the second portion of the sentence commences with a verb, whether principal or auxiliary, before its nominative; as, “ At the bottom of the garden ran a little rivulet.’? —“ Of the variegated mountain shall nought remain unchanged.’? — “ Underneath our happiest mirth ¢s a calm fountain of sober thought.” 8. When a preposition is removed from the word to which it

usually belongs, and placed at the beginning of the inverted phrase;

as, “ With that portion of the work he was the least satisfied;” instead of, “* He was the least satisfied with that portion of the work.”

—“ To egotists and pedants I have a strong antipathy.” —“ Of all truly noble feelings they were quite unsusceptible.”’ 4. When the first of the inverted portions of a sentence begins

with the words zt is, or only; as, “ Jt is in the sphere of intellect alone

that men are becoming truly civilized.’? —“ Only on a few slight occasions they felt disposed to be merciful.” 5.

When, though a distinct articulation may require a slight

pause, an inverted phrase can be read in close connection with what follows it, without affecting the import of the sentence; as, “ Jn infancy the mind is peculiarly ductile.’’ — “ Zo each the soul of each

how dear! ’? — “ By these swords we acquired our liberties.’? — “ Jn a lucid manner the orator expressed his ideas.”’

6. When an expression precedes an inverted phrase which is connected more closely with the latter portion of the sentence than

with the former; as, “ However opposite may be the sides from which we start at the foot of the mountain, in approaching its summit we approach one another.”

e. By carefully comparing the examples given under Remark d with those under the rule, and with a few additional ones, which, for the sake of reference, we shall now present, the student will be

struck with the fact, that, though in some respects similar to each

p. 98

INVERTED EXPRESSIONS.

other, they are in other and various respects dissimilar; and he will also perceive, that, while the insertion of a corama in the examples. belcnging to Remark d would be of no advantage in bringing out the. true meaning of the sentences, the omission of the point between

the inverted portions of those about to be exhibited would operate . to a greater or less extent in impeding an easy comprehension of the : — sense

1. That interesting and yaluable history which you lent him, he did not read. Him whose actions you approve, you will very probably imitate.

The praise of judgment, Virgil has justly contested with Homer. 2. At the bottom of the gurden, a little rivulet ran.

Of the variegated mountain, nought shall remain unchanged.

Underneath our happiest mirth, there 1s a calm fountain of sober thought..

8. With that portion of the work, Jeffrey was the least satisfied. To egotists and pedants, sensible men have a strong antipathy.

Of all feelings that are truly noble, they were quite unsusceptible.

4. In the sphere of intellect alone, men are becoming truly civilized. On a few slight occasions, they felt disposed to be merciful.

By forgetfulness of injuries, we show ourselves superior to them. 5. In youth, shun the temptations to which youth is exposed. To each, honor is given. — By these, various opinions may be held. ad

In a remarkably striking and lucid manner, the orator expressed his ideas. In approaching the summit of a mountain, we approach one another.

_ f. When, however, no serious error would be produced by the

omission of the comma, the briefer inverted phrases, even those belonging to the above class, may be left unpointed, if they oceur in clauses set off by commas; as, “ On piety humanity is built, and on humanity much happiness, and yet still more on piety itself.” Instances of this kind are often met with in poetry. g- But such inverted words as appear in the second and third

examples of No. 5 above, where the omission of the comma would manifestly tend to confusion or error, must in all cases be punctuated. So also must any phrase that is equivalent to a clause, or into which it is easily convertible; as, “ Jn believing attainment impossible, you will make it so;” that is, “If you believe,” &c. (see Rule XIV., p. 89); the only exception to the use of the point here being when such a phrase is used under the circumstances specified in Remark d 6. h. All inverted phrases, when preceded by other phrases or by clauses, are treated as parenthetical expressions, and punctuated

according to Rule VIII. and the remarks thereon, pp. 64, 65.

p. 99

THE COMMA. ORAL EXERCISE.

Why, according to Rule XIII. and Remarks (pp. 83-85), are commas inserted or

omitted between the transposed expressions in the following sentences ? —

To most, religion is a mere tradition or a momentary feeling.

In fearless freedom he arose. — By vicious examples be not misled. Of all ill habits, that of idleness is the most incorrigible. The first-fruit of your daily thoughts consecrate to God. In all sublime scenes, there is a mixture of the awful.

With earnest heart I humbly crave my latter end like his may be. The history of past ages, men often read to little purpose. Her crystal lamp the evening star has lighted.

To minds of a devout temper, the eternal is mirrored in the temporal. In the British Museum is the original work of Copernicus. Whom ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you.

Only by degrees we turn our thoughts inwardly on ourselves. Without much thought, books cannot be profitably read. To public opinion all states must in a measure bow.

Of good delivery, distinct articulation is an essential requisite.

Against great force of reasoning it is in vain to contend.

By the faults or errors of others, wise men correct their own.

In early years the habits of industry are most easily acquired. At his control, despair and anguish fled the struggling soul. Through her rags do, the winds of the winter blow. bleak. To study the science of spirit, | must enter my own soul. All the appearances of nature I was careful to study.

By good nature, half the misery of human life is assuaged. — In silent and solitary places, genius is often found. Into that glorious world he constantly beckons us to follow him. Like a spectre in the night, the grandeur of Rome is vanished.

Scipio, Milton called “ the height of Rome.”? — In thee I confide. It is only by devotion to liberal pursuits that we can be truly liberal

Greater exploits than force, counsel and wisdom achieve.

To thee I pour my prayer. — In power and wealth exult no more.

What is the right path, few men take the trouble of inquiring. This great error I wish to expose. — It is a place he aspires to hold, In meeting with a madman, feign yourself a fool.

To those whose interests are in danger, time is valuable. For want of this, genius has been a scourge to the world.

In eternity God dwelleth, free from anger and from pain. With the many, life is one round of never-ceasing toil.

p. 100

INVERTED EXPRESSIONS.

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Punctuate the following sentences, or leave them unpointed, in accordance with the thirteenth Rule and the Remarks thereon :—

In the production and preservation of order all men recognize something that is sacred.

(Rule, and Remark e 5.)

From the right exercise of our intellectual powers arises one of the chief sources of our happiness.

(Remark d 2, 3.)

Through life truth ought to be one of the great objects of human pursuit.

(Rule, and Remark e 5.)

In the attainment of all excellence in the arts patronage and genius should go hand in hand.

(Rule.)

Education is at home a friend, abroad an introduction, in solitude

a solace, in society an ornament.

(Remark d 5.)

In every material action of your life consider well its probable result.

(Rule, and Remark e¢ 5.)

Of all our virtuous emotions those of kind regard are the most readily imitated. _

(Rule.)

In the solemn silence of the mind are formed those great resolu-

tions which decide the fate of men.

(Remark d 2.)

Before giving way to anger try to find a reason for not being

angry.

(Rule, and last portion of Remark g.)

In the acuteness of the external senses some of the inferior animals excel our species.

(Rule, and Remark e 5.)

Over matchless talents probity should throw its brightest lustre.

(Rule, and Remark e 3.) It is from the spirit’s own pearl that the good embellish their character.

(Remark d 4.)

From the little root of a few letters science has spread its branches over all nature, and raised its head to the heavens.

(Rule.)

Only in the light of a sublime faith can the history of our race be read without despondency.

(Remarks d 2, 4.)

In the ruffled and angry hour we view every appearance through 2 false medium.

(Remark e 5.)

It is through moral and spiritual power that the rivers of thought and feeling are to be turned.

(Remark d 4.)

Friend of the brave! in peril’s darkest hour

Intrepid Virtue looks to thee for power.

(Remark d 6.)

Of all treasons against humanity there is no one worse than his who employs great intellectual force to keep down the intellect of his less-favored brethren.

(Rule.)

p. 101

THE COMMA.

In these hours of golden leisure my chief haunt is the banks of a small stream.

(Rule, and Remark ¢ 5.)

This view of religion I propose to make the subject of some free discussion.

(Remark d 1.)

In amusement and novel-reading only the girl spends all her evening hours. (Rule, and Remark e 4.)

On feelings allied to these priestcraft and sorcery have often fastened themselves.

(Rule, and Remark e 8.)

In order to improve the mind we ought less to learn than to contemplate. (Rule, and last portion of Remark g.)

With what you have be satisfied. — All-you hear believe not.

(Remark d, third line.)

In the hurry and eagerness of selfish competition we underrate

the silent influence of moral character.

(Rule, and Remark e 5.) When others are asleep, in its own contemplations the soul finds

a source of solace and pleasure.

(Remark d 6.)

In not learning your business perfectly you cannot give satisfac-

tion to your employer.

(Rule; and Remarke¢ 6, and last of g.) To every character its fitting position and appropriate function

have been assigned.

(Remark d 3.)

It is to the unaccountable oblivion of our mortality that the world owes all its fascination.

(Remark d 4.)

By doing nothing we learn to do ill. — To command any subject adequately we must stand above it.

(Rule, and last of Remark g.)

In this struggle his moral discipline consists.

On no other terms

could he be at once a dweller on earth and an heir of heaven. (Remark d 3, 2, 5.) On some fond breast the parting soul relies, Some pious drops the closing eye requires; Even from the tomb the voice of nature cries,

Even in our ashes live their wonted fires.

(Rem. d 3, 1, 5, 2.)

Through the dim veil of the visible and perishing man catches a glimpse of the vast significance of the unseen and the eternal. (Rule,

and Remarke 5.)

On beds of green sea-flower thy limbs shall be laid, Around thy white bones the red coral shall grow,

Of thy fair yellow locks threads of amber be made, And every part suit to thy mansion below.

(Rem. d 8, 6, and f.}

Into every human being has God breathed an immortai soul. — Into every human being God has breathed an immortal soul. (Remarks d 2 and e 2.)

p. 102

DEPENDENT CLAUSES. RULE

XIV.

One Clause Depending on Another.

Two clauses, one depending on the other, are separated by a comma. EXAMPLES.

If you would be revenged on your enemies, let your life be blameless. Wealth is of no real use, except it be well employed.

. Unless it blossoms in the spring, the tree will not bear fruit in autumn.

. Till we can go alone, we must lean on the hand of a guide. . Fill thy heart with goodness, and thou wilt find that the world is full of goed.

a, Sentences containing dependent clauses are generally distin-

REMARK 8.

guished by one of them beginning with a particle expressive of

condition, admission, purpose, causation, time, or place.

They are

not, however, necessarily so constructed, as is shown in the fifth example, the clauses of which depend, one on the other, not in form,

but in sense; being equivalent to — “ Jf thou fill thy heart with goodness, thou wilt find,’ &c. b. A phrase having the import of a conditional clause, and put at the beginning of the sentence, is also distinguished by a comma; as,

“ To be good, you must do good;”’ that is, ‘ That you may be good,

you must do good.’ — See p. 85, last portion of g. c. When, in a sentence relating to time, place, or manner, the clause beginning with an adverb is put last, and is closely connected in sense with what precedes it, the comma should not be inserted;

as, “I love my kind where’er I roam.’ —“ You will reap as you

sow.”

Clauses like these may be regarded as akin to the restrictive

relative. — See Rule VIL, § 11., p. 57.

d. But if the adverbs when, where, &c:., have only a faint reference to time or place, or introduce an additional idea, they should be

preceded by a comma; as, “ Refrain not to speak, when by speaking you may be useful to others.” — “ Andrew sailed for California, where he does a flourishing business.”

e. When the conjunctions if and because are used to bind closely

together the two clauses between which they are severally placed,

the comma is unnecessary; as “ You may go if you will.” —“ Sin

is not less dangerous because men are hardened by it.”

p. 103

THE COMMA.

J. No point should be introduced between two clauses united by the conjunction that, signifying purpose or design, if it is closely connected with the preceding verb; as, “ He visited the springs that he might improve his health.” But a comma must be inserted if the conjunction is separated at some distance from the verb; as, “ Let us consider the following propositions, that we may fully understand the subject.”

g.- The comma is usually admissible between the clauses, when

the words in order come before the conjunction that, unless they are

preceded immediately by the verb; as, “ Cesar visited Britain, an order that he might conquer the inhabitants.’? —“ The man travelled in order that he might regain his strength.”

h. The distinction recommended in the punctuation of the first example under each of the Remarks f and g may seem rather nice;

but, undoubtedly, the phrase in order that obstructs the flow of a sentence more than the simple conjunction that.

ORAL EXERCISES.

Show how Rule XIV. is applicable to the punctuation of the sentences that follow :—

Where thoughts kindle, words spontaneously flow. The good which men do is not lost, though it is often disregarded.

If there were no cowardice, there would be little insolence. Where the heart is well guarded, temptations cannot enter. It were no virtue to bear calamities, if we did not feel them. Make men intelligent, and they become inventive. Though a civilization may die, it leaves imperishable records. People are rude and unpolite, because they are ignorant.

Wherever we are, we are not forgotten by a kind Providence. Were patrons more disinterested, ingratitude would be more rare. Since none enjoy all blessings, be content with a few. Go where a man may, home is the centre to which his heart turns. As we grow older, life becomes dim in the distance.

We obey the laws of society, because they are the laws of virtues. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept.

Dare to be good, whatever evil may surround you. If their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. When beggars die, there are no comets seen.

Make up your mind to do a thing, and you will do it.

Every thing is beautiful, if left where nature meant it te be.

p. 104

DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

How do the Remarks (pp. 89, 90) apply to the punctuation of the following sentences : ——

Drop upon Fox’s grave the tear, twill trickle to his rival’s bier.

By playing with a fooi at home, he’ll play with you abroad. I will see you when you arrive. — I will go whither thou goest.

He went away as soon as I came. — Use time as if you knew its value.

Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Quietness and peace flourish where justice and reason govern.

Let us live while we live. — Fear not, while acting justly. He went to the city of Manchester, where he remained for a year. The age of miracles is past, while that of prejudice remains.

Sense shines with the greatest lustre, when it is set in humanity. I fled because I was afraid.—Speak clearly if you would be understood. Truth is to be loved,purely and solely because it is true. Live well that you may die well. — We go that we may be in time. Be studious and diligent, in order that you may become learned. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

laid Point, or leave unpointed, the following sentences, according to the principles — down in the fourteenth Rule and the Remarks : --

When the great man is laid in his grave lies of malice are apt to

give way to lies of adulation. (Rule.)

Decide not by authoritative rules when they are inconsistent with

reason. (Rule, and Remark d.)

A man may comfort himself for the wrinkles in his face provided

his heart be fortified with virtue. (Rule.)

We cannot turn in any direction where the Creator’s iove does

not smile around us.

(Remark c.)

If theological gossip were the measure of religious faith we should

be the devoutest of all human generations. (Rule.)

We cannot raise the moral standard of the depressed classes till we have first improved their social condition. (Rule, and Remark a.) Unless he put a bridle on his tongue the babbler will soon shut himself out from al) society. (Rule.)

Have respect for yourself that others may not disrespect you. (Rule, and last sentence of Remark St)

We should be ashamed of many of our actions were the world

acquainted with our motives.

(Rule.)

By timely resisting them the greatest evils may be overcome.

Rule, and Remark 8.)

p. 105

THE COMMA.

If there be nothing celestial.without us it is only because all is

earthly within.

(Rule.)

Remember your own feelings in order that you may

judge of the (Rule, and Remarks g, h.) Where the whole is one dark blot of shade there can be no picture. (Rule.) . feelings of others.

Breathe into men a fervent purpose and you awaken powers (Rule, and Remark a.)

before unknown.

Some people endeavor to divert their thoughts lest their minds (Rule.) . We were present when General Lafayette embarked at Havre for New York. (Remark c.) | When we combat error with any other weapon than argument

should reproach them.

we err more than those whom we attack.

(Rule.)

Let all dispose their hours till midnight when again we pray

presence.

(Remark d.)

your

_ In how small a compass lie all the elements of man’s truest happiness if society were only conducted in a rational spirit! (Rule.)

Suppress the first desires of evil as soon as they arise, and extin

guish the spark before it spreads.

(Remark c.) Where true religion has prevented one crime false religions

afforded a pretext for a thousand.

have

(Rule.)

Our hearts should be filled with gratitude when we contemplate

the wonderful works of nature.

(Rule, and Remark d.) The lives of men should be filled with beauty even as the earth and heavens are clothed with it. (Rule.)

Rear stronger minds and they will lift up the race to sublimer heights of dignity and power. (Rule, and Remark a.) There never is true eloquence except when great principles and

sentiments have entered into the substance of the soul.

(Rule.) We live that we may die. — Attend that you may receive instruc-

tion.

(Remark /, first sentence.)

If women fulfilled truly their divine errand there would be no need of reforming societies. (Rule.)

We compare the divine Mind with ours that we may have something within the grasp of our reason to dwell upon. (Last of Rem. I)

We weep over the dead because they have no life, and over the living because they have no perfection. (Remark e.)

Give me a larger eye and I will reveal to you another rank of

worlds marshalled behind those whose shining hosts you now

(Rule, and Remark a.)

behold.

p. 106

CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS. RULE

XV.

Correlative Words, Phrases, and Clauses.

§ I.

Two correlative expressions, united by the

conjunction as or than, are written without a point between them.

§ II.

But, when united by any other word than

these conjunctions, the correlative expressions are distinguished by a comma. EXAMPLES.

| oT

aad

§ 1.

. Men are never | so easily deceived |] as when they plot to deceive others.

. Achild in the humblest walks of life is | as richly gifted || as in the highest.

8. Only | such repentance is beneficial || as makes us wiser and better. 4. Do not spend | more time in bed || than is required for sleep. § IT.

mm OW

. But | though learned and methodical, {| yet the teacher was not a pedant. A great man will | neither trample on a worm, || nor cringe before a king. . All know that | as virtue is its own reward, || so vice is its own punishment. . Yes, | the more we see of a truly good man, || the better we love him, REMARKS.

a. To indicate the true character of the sentences just quoted, we have put two perpendicular lines between each pair of correlative expressions, and a single line before the first expression, in each example. It will be seen, that the phrases or clauses beginning severally with the correlative words, ‘ so—as,’’ “ as—as,” “ such—as,” “ more—than,” which occur in the first class of examples, have a stronger attraction to each other than those commencing with the correlatives “ though—yet,”’ “ neither—nor,”’ “ as—so,”’ “ the more— the better,” in the second; and that, on this account, the expressions under the former division are properly written without commas, and those under the latter with them.

6. When the conjunction bué is improperly used, after so, for as and a negative, the sentence is subject to the principle of punctuation contained in the first section of the rule; as, “ There is no opinion so absurd but has [as not to have] some philosopher or other to produce in its support.”’

p. 107

THE COMMA.

c. When, in sentences referable to the first division of the rule, the last of the correlative words requires a comma after it, a comma should also be inserted between the correlative expressions; as, “ The

mind that boasts of its rich endowments is so limited and cramped, as, in comparison with what it might enjoy, to be utterly poor and

naked.”

It is evident, that, without the point before the conjunction

as, this word would seem to be more closely united with the preceding than with the following portion of the sentence, to which it

rather belongs.

d. Correlative expressions should be separated, it ambiguity of sense would be occasioned in any instance by the omission of the comma before the second correlative; as, “ Greuteris he that pro- -

phesieth, than he that speaketh with tongues.”

Without the point, the sentence might be improperly read so as to mean, — “ Greater

is he that prophesieth with tongues than he that speaketh with tongues.”

@. So, also, in respect to the same class of sentences, the correlative expressions are better separated by a comma, when they consist of two or more phrases; as, “ We can no more preserve a stationary attitude | in the moral world, than we can refuse to accompany the physical earth | in its rotation.” Here, the insertion of the point, though not essential, shows more clearly those portions of the sen tence to which each set of phrases belongs, and by this means serves

to bring out the sense. J. As an exception to the second division of the rule, it may be remarked, that the comma is better omitted between clauses contain-

ing the correlative words so or such—that, when they are closely

connected; as, “ John was so much injured that he could not walk.’— “The earthquake produced such a shock that it awoke us all.” g. But if these correlatives are placed at or near the beginning of the clauses to which they respectively belong, or if the last correlative word has a comma after it, the clauses should be separated, agreeably to the rule; as, “‘ So benevolent a man was he, that almost

every act of his was devoted to the well-being of his race.’ — “ Man is so created, that, let his wants be as simple as they will, he must

labor to supply them.” h. Expressions beginning with both—and, whether—or, either—or, neither—nor, are generally separated by a comma when each is a clause, but left unpointed when one of them is a phrase; as, “ Neither flatter yourselves, nor permit others to flatter you.””—“ We cannot trace either their causes or their effects.”

p. 108

CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS.

ORAL EXERCISES.

Agreeably to Rule XV. (p. 98), state why some of the following sentences are printed with, and others without, the comma :—

It is easier to rouse the passions than to direct the mind. When pride cometh, then cometh shame. — She is as good as he.

No one is so much alone in the universe as a denier of God. As we do to others, so shall it be done unto us.

Man gains wider dominion by his intellect than by his right arm. Wherever man is, there are the elements of poetry. Every one has as much vanity as he is deficient in understanding.

If you know that your object is good, then without hesitation seek it. A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. Though truth is fearless and absolute, yet she is meek and modest. I have returned to refute a libel as false as it is malicious. The more industrious you are, the sooner will you learn a trade. Be governed more by a regard to duty than by a prospect of gain. Such as the tree is, such will be the fruit.

We can discover nothing so sublime as the spirit of self-sacrifice. The better a proverb is, the more trite it generally becomes.

Show how the preceding Remarks will apply to the punctuation of correlative :— clauses and phrases in the following sentences

No errors are so trivial but they deserve to be mended, and no sin

so slight but it should be repented of and renounced.

Our sympathy is always awakened more by hearing the speaker,

than by reading his works in our closet.

Only such sorrow purifies and blesses, as comes to us in the pur-

suit of high and noble ends.

Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox, and

hatred therewith.

Virtue is so amiable that even the vicious admire it. — So frowned

the mighty combatants, that hell grew darker at the sight.

Such was the rush of the people, that but few could be admitted

to the lecture.

Grace of manners is so essential to rulers, that, whenever it is

neglected, their virtues lose a great degree of lustre.

Whether my gift be liberal, or whether it be niggardly, is not the question. — Whether right or wrong, I am held responsible. We can neither fly from the presence of God, nor escape his sight. — Virtue is neither a phantom nor a vain vision.

p. 109

THE COMMA. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Let these sentences be punctuated or not, agreeably to the fifteenth Rule and the -

Remarks (pp. 98, 94): —

We are so afraid of each other’s doctrines that we cannot cure each other’s sins. (Rule, § .; and Remark g.)

Does not the glorious sun pour down his golden flood as cheerily on the poor man’s cottage as on the rich man’s palace? (Rule, § 1) We must not only avoid what God has forbidden but do what he

has commanded.

(Rule, § 11.)

One angel’s history may be a volume of more various truth than all the records of our race.

(Rule, § 1.)

Although men are accused for not knowing their own weakness yet perhaps as few know their own strength. (Rule, § 11.)

He is a better man who wisely speaks than he who talks at ran(Remark d.)

dom.

No sublimity is so real as that which makes itself deeply felt in

union with beauty.

(Rule, § 1.)

Though he were as rich as Croesus still would man be dissatisfied

with his condition.

(Rule, §§ 1., 11.)

Better live an honest poor man than die a selfish and grasping millionnaire.

(Rule, § 1.)

What thou forbiddest us that will we shun and abhor: what thou commandest us that will we love and pursue..

(Rule, § 1.)

My engagements are of such a character as will deprive me of partaking the festivities of the day.

(Rule, § 1.)

Such is the course of nature that whoever lives long must outlive those whom he loves.

(Rule, § 1.; and Remark g.)

The doll-shop is as fit a place for studying character as the fashionable dinner-party, the assembly, or the ball-room.

(Remark e.) The rarer the beauty of the external scene the deeper should be the impression of the unseen God. (Rule, § 11.)

Of things invisible, the evidence can never be such as those who

rely on purely intellectual assurance will demand.

(Rule, § 1.) The more a man speaks of himself the iess he likes to hear another spoken of. (Rule, § 11.)

Nothing appears to us so beautiful in human experience as the reciprocal affection of parents and children.

(Rule, § 1.)

The gigantic genius of Shakspeare so far surpassed the learning

and penetration of his time that his productions were little read and less admired. (Rule, §11.; and Remark g.) |

p. 110

CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS.

Rather do good than seem to be.— So live with men as if God saw you.

(Rule, § 1.)

The progress of some men is so rapid that they keep ahead of

common sense.

(Remark /-)

Neither could he obtain the benefits which he desired nor avert the calamities which he feared. (Rule, § 1.; and first of Remark h.) I am as much known to God as if I were the single object of his

attention.

(Rule, § I.)

Art is capable of not only imitating nature in her graces but even of adorning her with graces of her own. (Rule, § 1.) Either the mere will of the magistrate or the conscience of the individual must decide in the case. (Remark h, second portion.) The more the love of poetry is cultivated and refined the more do men strive to make their outward lives rhythmical and harmonious.

(Rule, § 11.)

There is no part of social life which affords more real satisfaction than those hours which one passes in rational and unreserved con-

versation.

(Rule, § 1.)

Not more do we discern in the writings of Shakspeare the greatest

manifestation of human genius than in the reality of Christ the highest expression of the Divine.

(Remark e.)

The more highly we cultivate our minds here the better shall we be prepared for the nobler pursuits of the next stages of our exist-

ence. (Rule, § 11.)

~ Tt had been better for them not to have known the way of righteousness than, after they have known it, to turn from the holy commandment delivered unto them. .

(Remark c or eé.)

AS no cause

For such exalted confidence could e’er

Exist so none is now for fixed despair.

(Rule, § 1.)

The age in which George II. reigned was not by any means

marked by such striking features of originality or vigor as some of the preceding eras.

(Rule, § 1.)

There is nothing which employs the mind and the heart so attrac-

tively as the close study of character in all its smaller peculiarities. (Rule, § 1.)

The universe at large would suffer as little in its splendor and variety by the destruction of our planet as the verdure and sublime magnitude of a forest would suffer by the fall of a single leaf. (Remark e.)

p. 111

948

THE COMMA. RULE

XVI.

Phrases und Clauses in the same Construction.

Two or more phrases or clauses, when in the same

construction, are separated by a comma from each other, and, when they do not complete a proposition, from the remainder of the sentence. EXAMPLES.

J, No one ought unnecessarily to wound the feelings of his neighbors, or to insult their religious prepossessions.

2. Regret for the past, grief at the present, and anxiety respecting the future, are plagues which affect the generality of men.

8. Beauty haunts the depths of the earth and sea, and gleams out in the hues of the shell and the precious stone.

4. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them. REMARKS.

a. The first and second of these sentences exemplify the use of phrases in the same construction; the third and fourth, that of clauses. Both kinds of expressions are said to be in the same construction,

for these reasons, — that, in the first example, the infinitives ‘ to wound,” “to insult,” are each governed by one and the same verb, “ ought;” that, in the second, the whole series of phrases forms a compound nominative to the verb “are;” that, in the third, the verbs “haunts’? and “gleams,” occurring respectively in the two clauses, have the same nominative, “beauty;’’ and that, in the fourth, the clauses are all formed alike, and have a mutual relation. In the second example, the co-ordinate expressions do not conclude the proposition; and therefore a comma is put after the last of these, in order to point out their common dependence on what follows. b. When two brief phrases are formed alike, and united by either of the conjunctions and, or, nor, the comma is. better omitted between

them; as, “ A healthy body and a sound mind should be preserved —“‘ The pastimes of youth have a tendency to as real blessings.’’ invigorate the body or to expand the mind.’’ The omission of the

point is particularly recommended, when two phrases form a com-

pound parenthetical expression, or belong to one; as, “ We must file a protest against the practice of destroying the birds of the garden; for, besides depriving us of the beauty of their appearance and the music

p. 112

EXPRESSIONS CONSTRUCTED ALIKE.

of their song, it lets in a flood of insects, whose numbers the birds were commissioned to keep down.” — See p. 46, 7.

c. If, however, by omitting the comma, two such phrases might be read so as to obscure or pervert the meaning, the point must be inserted; as, ‘‘ Receive blessings with thankfulness, and afflictions with resignation.” — See also p. 29, ft

d. When two connected phrases are different in form or in the number of words, their relation to the context is better seen when they are set off by commas; as, “ Undue susceptibility, and the preponderance of mere feeling over thoughtfulness, may mislead us.”

e. The same mode of punctuation is adopted for a word anda phrase, or for a series consisting partly of words and partly of phrases; a comma, however, being put after the last particular, when it does not end the clause; as, “ Calmness, modesty, candor, forgetfulness of self, and love of others, are all required for the occasion.” jf. But, to prevent ambiguity, a little care is sometimes necessary to discriminate phrases from single words, as in the following sen-

tence: “ Their depravity, their spiritual ignorance and destitution, are

awfully great.’? Were a comma put after “ ignorance,” the sentence would be analyzed improperly, and convey a wrong meaning; whereas the sense of the passage requires the Italicized portion to be viewed, not as a phrase and a word, but as a mere phrase, and punetuatedas above. By omitting the adjectival words, “ their spiritual,” which qualify both of the nouns “ ignorance” and “ destitution,” the punctuation would, according to Rule III., p. 87, be thus exhibited: “ Their depravity, ignorance, and destitution are awfully great.” g. When a series consists both of words and phrases, all connected by one of the conjunctions and, or, nor, the comma should be omitted between the single words, but inserted between the phrases; as, “Some men would be distinguished in their occupation or pursuit or profession, or in the style of living, or in the dignity of office, or in the glare and pride and pomp of power.” — See p. 38, h. h. When a series consists of phrases or clauses, united by either of the conjunctions just named, the particulars are separated from

one another by a comma; as, “ Reach the goal, and gain the prize,

and wear the crown.” But, if the series is used parenthetically, the commas may be omitted; as, “ Through the soul we have direct access to God, and, by a trustful heart and a@ submissive will and a devoted service, may spiritually unite ourselves with him.’’ — See 6. i. Pairs of words are regarded as phrases, and punctuated in

accordance with the rule; as, “ Anarchy and confusion, poverty and

p. 113

100

THE COMMA.

distress, follow a civil war.’’— “ Whether we eat or drink, labor or sleep, we should be moderate.”

j. It is very usual, particularly in the United States, to omit the comma between the number of a house or shop and the street, and

after the name of a month when preceding that of the year to which it belongs; but, as these words are employed neither adjectively nor

in apposition, the point should, beyond all doubt, be inserted; as,

“ No. 140, Broadway, New York, January, 1855.” —“ Thomas Tegg, bookseller, 73, Cheapside.””

In accordance with the same principle,

a@ comma should be put after a reference made to any of the sacred

books, when it is followed immediately by the chapter and verse; as,

‘ John, xvi. 20: unless the references to Scripture are numerous, when, for the sake of neatness, the comma is better omitted.

k. Consecutive or co-ordinate clauses, if not joined by a conjunction, are sometimes better distinguished by a semicolon or a colon than by a comma; as, “ Death is certain; time, uncertain.” —“ Death

is certain: time is uncertain.” — See Rule XVIL., p. 104.

@. To exhibit the limits of the rule, it may not be improper to anticipate what will be more fully treated of in the next section; namely, that clauses, when separable into smaller portions requiring

the comma, are separated from each other by a semicolon; as, “ How

strange it seems, that the passion of love should be the supreme mover of the world; that it is this which has dictated the greatest sacrifices, and influenced all societies and all times; that to this the

loftiest and loveliest genius has ever consecrated its devotion; that but for love there were no civilization, no music, no poetry, no

beauty, no life beyond the brute’s!’’

The sentences given to exem-

plify the rule are not thus divisible, and are therefore punctuated

only by means of the comma.

ORAL EXERCISES.

Say why, according to Rule XVI., commas are inserted in these sentences :—

To cleanse our own opinions from falsehood, our hearts from

malignity, and our actions from vice, is our first concern.

Speak as you mean, do as you profess, and perform what you promise.

Great moral principles, pure and generous disposttions, cannot be

confined to this or that spot. The true worshipper of beauty sees it in the lowliest flower, meets

it in every path, enjoys it everywhere.

p. 114

EXPRESSIONS CONSTRUCTED ALIKE.

101

Eloquence is to be attained by the full culture, the general enriching, of the heart and mind. | Has God provided for the poor a coarser earth, a thinner air a paler sky ?

The voice of merriment and of wailing, the steps of the busy and

the idle, have ceasedin the deserted courts.

Man was created to search for truth, to love the beautiful, to

desire whatis good, and to do the best.

You may dazzle men’s eyes with large enterprises in philanthropy, but possess nothing of the philanthropic spirit.

Beauty flows in the waves of light, radiates from the human face divine, and sparkles in the pathway of every child. The devil loves nothing better than the intolerance of reformers, and dreads nothing so much as their charity and patience.

Infinite space, endless numbers, and eternal duration, fill the mind with great ideas. Assign the reasons given in the Remarks (pp. 98, 99) for the insertion or the omission of commas in such sentences as the following : —

It is education that characterizes mental power as the talent of

an angel or the capacity of a fiend. Eminent talent and distinguished attainment are sometimes con-

nected with obliquity of character. The student may, by close application and by proper culture,

attain ease and grace in his composition. Some persons mistake abhorrence of vice for uncharitableness, and piety for enthusiasm.

Suffering often calls forth our best feelings, and the highest energies

of the mind. Fraud, enthusiasm, and narrowness of view, often shape the

premises to fit the conclusion.

The beauty of his moral character, his. generous impulses and

sympathies, were the theme of every tongue.

Babylon and Troy and Tyre, and even early Rome, are passing already into fiction.

Age never dims their sight, nor slackens their speed, norweakens

their force, nor abates their fidelity.

Perfection of mind consists of firmness and mildness, of force and tenderness, of vigor and grace.

On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, the Puritans looked down with contempt.

p. 115

102

THE COMMA. EXERCISE

WRITTEN.

Let the punctuation of such of the following sentences as require to be pointed accord with the Rule and Remarks (pp. 98-100): —

Joint effort conquers nature hews through mountains rears pyra-

mids dikes ont the ocean.

(Rule.)

With a callous heart, there can be no genius in the imagination or wisdom in the mind.

(Rule, and Remark

c.)

Genius deals with the possible creates new combinations discovers new Jaws and acts from an insight into principles. (Rule.)

Refined manners and polite behaviour must not be deemed alto(First of Remark 0.)

gether superficial.

To be wise in our own eyes to be wise in the opinion of the world and to be wise in the sight of our Creator seldom coincide. ( Rule.)

Thou art capable of something purer nobler infinitely better than

thou hast become. _

(Remark e.)

Familiarity with the world’s vices can never reveal to you the world’s great truths or enable you to fathom its deep realities. (Rule.)

It should be the first object of education to form a pure heart

high principle an earnest and ingenuous spirit.

(Rule.) We live in times that call for wisdom in contemplation and virtue

in action.

(Rule, and Remark c.)

Every human being has a work to carry on within duties to perform abroad influences to exert which are peculiarly his. (Rule.) Resolute thoughts find words for themselves and make their own

vehicle.

(Rule.)

The man of enlightened understanding and persevering ardor has many sources of enjoyment which the ignorant man cannot

reach.

(First of Remark 0.)

The only distinctionsin society which should be recognized are those of the soul of strong principle of incorruptible integrity of useful-

ness of cultivated intellect of fidelity in seeking for truth.

(Rule.) To the poor and the desolate the timid and the anxious the weary

and the aged the idea of a common brotherhood must be full of light.

(Rule, and Remark 7.)

The pure, kind, trustful heart, intent on duty and only ambiticus

of usefulness, bears, in the beaming eye and open brow and gladsome voice, unfailing evidence of inward peace and joy.

(Last of Rem. h.) Do the voice of the wise and the arm of the brave and the blood

of the patriot go for nothing in the wild conflict that is desolating

the earth?

(Rule, and first of Remark h.)

p. 116

EXPRESSIONS

CONSTRUCTED ALIKE.

103

I know of no great expounder of moral principle I know of no eloquent teacher of divine truth who is more useful in God’s world, than a business-man that carries his religion into his business.

(Rule.)

Can we imagine that God’s highest gifts of intelligence imagination and moral power were bestowed to provide only for anima!

wants?

(Remark e.)

Ancient superstition introduced the fine arts into her train called the powers of genius to her aid and employed the painter and the poet to hold out her charms to the world.

(Rule.)

Want and anxiety and habitual discontent and hate of fancied Oppression can never raise a class and excite it to noble efforts.

(Rule, and Remarks 2, g.) How often, in surveying the great man’s splendid mansion and wandering through his ancient woods and beautiful gardens, have we met with some touching memorial of human affection!

both sentences.)

(Remark 4,

That fortitude which has encountered no dangers that prudence

which has surmounted no difficulties that integrity which has been attended by no temptations can at best be considered but as gold not yet brought to the test.

(Rule.)

Surely this is a world of plenteousness and beauty and gladness of loves and friendships of blessed homes and holy altars of sacred communions and lofty aspirations and immortal prospects.

(Rule,

and Remarks g, 5, and first of h.) Faith is the root and foundation of whatever is noble and excellent in man of all that is mighty and admirable in his intellect of all that is amiable and praiseworthy in his affections of all that is sound and stable in his moral being.

(Rule.)

Put holy truth in every false heart; instil a sacred piety into every

worldly mind and a blessed virtue into every fountain of corrupt

desires; and the anxieties of philanthropy might be hushed and the

tears of benevolent prayer and faith might be dried up and patriotism and piety might gaze upon the scene and the prospect With 1unmin-

gled joy.

(Rule, and Remarks d, h, &, 1.)

The culture of the intellect is an unmixed good, when it is sacredly

used to enlighten the conscience to feed the flame of generous sentiment to perfect us in our common employments to throw a grace over our common actions to make us sources of innocent cheerfulness

and centres of holy influence and to give us courage strength stability amidst the sudden changes and sore temptations and trials of life. (Rule, and Remarks 4, e.)

p. 117

104

THE COMMA.

RULE

XVI

Clauses having a Verb understood.

When, in a compound sentence, the clauses have each a different nominative, but have only one verb, expressed in the first clause and understood in the

others, the ellipsis, or place of the verb, should be supplied by a comma. EXAMPLES.

1. A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool, to outshine others.

2. The wise man considers what he wants; the fool, what he abounds in. 8. The wise man is happy in his own approbation; the fool, in the applause of his fellows. REMARKS.

a. In the above examples, a comma is inserted after the second

nominative, “ fool,” to indicate, in the first sentence, the ellipsis of the verb “ seeks;’? in the second, that of the verb “ considers;” and, jn the third, that of the verb and adjective, “is happy.” Hence a semicolon is required before the second nominative to divide each sentence into the two larger portions of which it consists, and to show the relation of its various parts.

6. But, if two clauses have a bearing on a final expression,

the comma should be omitted after the second nominative, and the

semicolon before it changed into a comma; as, “ Herder had more of the Oriental fancy, Schletermacher more of the European acuteness,

in his composition.” For, were a semicolon put after “fancy,” and a comma after “ Schleiermacher,” as in the rule, the phrase “in his composition’ would seem to be connected only with the last clause, though it belongs equally to both.

c. So, also, when two short clauses are joined by either of the conjunctions and, or, nor, but, and any word but a noun follows the second nominative, the comma should be omitted where the verb . is understood, and the semicolon after the first clause exchanged for a comma; as, “ Life is precarious, and death certain.” If asemicolon were placed after the word ‘ precarious,” it would be necessary to separate “ death” and “ certain” by a comma; as, “ Life is preca-

rious; and death, certain.” But such a mode of punctuation would be too rigid, and is not required for bringing out the sense.

p. 118

THE VERB UNDERSTOOD.

105

d. When, too, in a series of clauses, each ellipsis is followed by a preposition or by the comparative as, the free style of pointing seems more appropriate; as, “ Mathematicians have sought knowledge in figures, philosophers im systems, logicians m subtilties, and metaphysicians 77 sounds.”

e. If, however, obscurity would arise, either in two clauses or in a series, from the omission of the comma,—as, for instance, — the punctuation adopted in the when the preposition of is used, - examples under the rule must be followed. Thus: “ Power reminds

you of weakness; permanency, of change; life, of death; light, of

. darkness; and the true, of the false.” f. When lightness or vivacity characterizes the style, the free mode of pointing is preferable to the other, if no ambiguity would arise from its use, as in the following passage: “ There is a magic in the sound of ‘Stop thief! stop thief!’ The tradesman leaves his counter, and the carman his wagon; the butcher throws down his tray, the baker his basket, the milkman his pail, the errandboy his parcels, the school-boy his marbles, the paver his pickaxe,

the child his battledoor: away they run pellmell, helter-skelter.” ORAL EXERCISES.

Why, according to Rule XVI1., are commas wserted in these sentences ? —

Curiosity allures the wise; vanity, the foolish; and pleasure, both.

The Grecians excelled in precepts; the Romans, in examples. Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist. Passion overcomes shame; boldness, fear; and madness, reason. Anger prompts men to contention; avarice, to oppression. The benevolent man is esteemed; the penurious, despised. A robber employs violence; and a thief, cunning and guile. The young are slaves to novelty; the old, to custom. War is the law of violence; peace, the law of love.

The Doric dialect was broad and rough; the Ionic, smooth.

Semiramis built Babylon; Dido, Carthage; and Romulus, Rome.

Labor brings pleasure; idleness, pain. Plants are formed by culture; men, by education. One murder makes a villain; millions, a hero.

Pleasant recollections promote cheerfulness; and painful ones, gloom. Crowns were the playthings of Napoleon; thrones, his footstool. Truth belongs to the man; error, to his age.

Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness, to fewer virtues.

p. 119

106

THE COMMA.

Assign the reasons for the punctuation of the following sentences, agrceably to the Remarks (pp. 104-5):

Our existence has no support, our life no aim, our spiritual weakness no power to lean upon, without God.

Shakspeare was the greatest poet, Newton the most distinguished

mathematician, that England ever produced. The coarse worm yields us a beautiful fly, and the thorny bush

a lovely flower. The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive speculation, but those of Pope by minute attention.

Shakspeare died in 1616, Milton in 1674, Dryden in 1700, Pope in 1744, and Goldsmith in 1774. Bonaparte was a man of unbounded ambition; and Washington,

of disinterested patriotism.

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

' Punctuate those sentences to which no references are given, in accordance with Rule XVII.; and the others agreeably to the Remarks : —

The character of Milton was peculiarly distinguished by loftiness

of thought; that of Dante by intensity of feeling. Concession is no humiliation nor admission of error any disgrace. (Remark ec.)

Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy; Aristotle most correctness.

The sculptor sees a statue and the philosopher a principle, where,

to the general eye, allis “ without form,and void.”

(Remark 0.)

Homer’s imagination is by much the most rich and copious;

Virgil’s the most chaste and correct.

The cupola is taken from the human skull pillars from legs thatch-

ing from hair and tiling from the scales of fish.

(Remark d.)

Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man.

Avarice must come to the hour of utter destitution and pride to the hour of utter prostration.

(Remark c.)

The quality the most difficult to be found in public situations is probity; the least difficult confidence.

Some men are eminent for what they possess some for what they

achieve and others for what they are.

(Remark d.)

The first ingredient in conversation is truth; the next good sense; the third good-humor; and the fourth wit.

p. 120

107

THE VERB UNDERSTOOD.

All our mental perceptions suggest their opposites, — the finite the infinite; the seen the unseen; time eternity; creation a God. A pictured landscape recalls a familiar scene and a portrait a familiar countenance. (Remark c.) Talent is full of thoughts; genius of thought. One has definite acquisitions; the other indefinite power.

Addison taught the intellect and fancy and Richardson the passions, to move at the command of virtue. (Remark 0 or c.) Nature had no obstacles that he did not surmount; space ho

opposition that he did not spurn.

Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy |

Aristotle most correctness, of judgment. (Remark 0.) To mourn without measure is folly; not to mourn at all insensi-

bility. — Foresight is simple; retrospect multiform. The young are slaves to novelty the old to custom the middleaged to both the dead to neither. (Remark d.)

Custom respects things which are done by the majority; habit

those which are done by individuals.

A man’s true prosperity often begins when he is said to be ruined and his ruin when he is said to be prospering. (Remark c.) Genius is the intuitive perception of what is; moral sentiment the feeling of what cught to be.

Chaucer most frequently describes things as they are Spenser as we wish them to be Shakspeare as they would be and Milton as they ought to be.

(Remark d.)

Delicacy leans more to feeling; correctness more to reason and judgment. The former is the gift of nature; the latter more the

product of culture and art.

Rashness is the error of youth; and timid caution of age. — Hurry is the mark of a weak mind; despatch of a strong one. (Rule, and Remark ¢.) All nature is but art, unknown to thee;

All chance direction which thou canst not see;

All discord harmony not understood; All partial evil universal good.

The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation and

the foo! when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him.

(Remark c.)

Fear urges us to action; terror to flight. — The idle want steadiness of purpose; the indolent power of exertion. — Children have understandings; men intellect.

p. 121

108

THE COMMA. RULE

XVIIL

Clauses consisting of Short Quotations or Remarks.

A short quotation, or any expression that resembles a quotation, is separated by a comma from the clause

which precedes it. EXAMPLES.

1. Dr. Thomas Brown truly says, “‘ The benevolent spirit is as universal in its efforts as the miseries which are capable of being relieved.”

2. One of the first lessons of a judicious education is, Learn to think and to discriminate.

8. It may be laid down as a sacred maxim, that every man is wretched in proportion to his vices. REMARKS.

a. By a short quotation is meant a single sentence, containing the remark of another writer. By an expression resembling a quotation is indicated a remark, of some degree of importance, to which attention is called in the introductory clause.

Such a remark is not unfrequently preceded by the conjunction “ that,” as in the third

example; and, in these cases, the comma is usually inserted before the particle.

6. Some writers annex a dash [—J| to the comma; but this is unnecessary, except before emphatic or long passages.

Jf, however, .

quotations or remarks extend to two or more sentences, and are formally or specially introduced, a colon is preferable.

c. When an indirect quotation or a remark is preceded by a very brief clause, the comma is not required; as, “Andrew says he loves me.” — “ J doubt not that mind is immortal.” —“ Jt is impossible that we should make Walter fully understand his ignorance.” . d. But, if the remark or quotation consists of phrases which require to be punctuated, a comma should precede the conjunction, even when tke introductory part of the sentence is quite short; as, “ Ossian

says, that sorrow, like a cloud on the sun, shaded the soul of Clessamour.”” A comma should also be inserted after the conjunction, if an inverted or an adverbial phrase begins the remark; as, “It is

certain, that, in the declension of taste and science, language will degenerate.””

The reason for the punctuation in such instances is, that the omission of the comma would bring the word “ that’? inte

p. 122

109

SHORT QUOTATIONS.

too close a contact with that part of the sentence with which it has the least affinity. For the sentence is obviously divisible into two portions, less connected than others which require to be pointed; the first ending, in the former of these examples, with the verb “ says,” and, in the latter, with the adjective “ certain.”

e. The comma may be omitted before that, when the clause on which the conjunction depends does not precede the remark, but is thrown in between its parts; as, “In the ancient world, 0% és well known that the name of poet was the same as that of prophet.” ‘This omission takes place because a comma is put after the first portion of the sentence, and because the repetition of the point would tend to

give a false view of the construction, and thereby obscure the sense.

f. But when, in similar sentences, the conjunction is omitted, the - comma should be substituted, agreeably to the principle adopted in parenthetical expressions; as, “ In the ancient world, it is well known,

the name of poet was the same as that of prophet.’ — See page 64, :

Rule VIII.

g. Aclause which begins with what, when, where, if, or how, indicating an indirect question or remark, is not usually separated from its antecedent clause; as, ‘ Will no one tell me what she sings? ”? — “ Revelation clearly informs us how we may obtain happiness.” ORAL EXERCISES.

Say why, according to Rule XVIIL., the following sentences are punctuated : ~

Patrick Henry commenced by saying, “It is natural to man to

indulge in the illusions of hope.”

The great and decisive test of genius is, that it calls forth power

in the souls of others.

I am not now to discuss the question, whether the souls of men

are naturally equal.

The very correct remark has been made, that “ it is a great loss

to lose an affliction.”

I reply, I do and must regard heaven as a world of intercourse

and sympathy.

His grand excellence was this, that he was a true man. — There

is much in the proverb, ‘“‘ Without pains, no gains.”

Such seems to be the disposition of man, whatever makes a dis-

tinction produces rivalry.

It is a law of man’s nature, that he should endeavor to act beforehand the part to which he is destined in a higher state of being.

p. 123

110

THE COMMA.

How do the preceding Remarks (pp. 108-9) apply to the

inser tion. or the omission of commas in the sentences that follow ! —

St.

John says that God is love. — Swift asserts that no man ever

wished himself younger.

| Every one knows James is a very prolific writer. —I trust you feel the importance of the subject. It cannot be questioned, that we are, as yet, only in the rudiments of the great science of education.

Wirt writes, that, as a statesman, Alexander Hamilton was distinguished for the great extent of his views. Ere another day pass, I hope that you will find yourself surrounded

by your wife and children.

By the sweat of our brow, I say, we have to earn the little

which

we possess.

We all know how a man of mighty genius can impart himself to

other minds.

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

fnsert commas or not between the clauses of the following

sentences, in accord-

ance with the eighteenth Rule and the Remarks :—

Seneca tells us “ There is a settled friendship, nay, a near

and similitude, between God and good men.”

In the great science of society, it must be confessed that

much to learn.

relation

(Rule.)

(Remark e.)

we have

They know not what they say who cry out “ Let us build taber-

nacles of rest.’

(Rule.)

Thou knowest that virtue can never be despoiled of its

crown.

(Remark c.)

deathless

It may be laid down as an unfailing and universal axiom that “all pride is abject and mean.” (Rule.) We know it is wrong.—I tell you that I have not your book. --

He said she bought it.

(Remark c.) . | The true ennoblement of our nature consists in the feeling that

our existence stretches beyond the bounds of this globe.

(Rule.)

It is well known what strange work there has been in the world. under the name and pretence of reformation. (Remark g-) Thou shalt take up this proverb against the king of Babylon, and say “ How hath the oppressor ceased!” (Rule.) In the din and bustle of business, it may be the voice of conscience

and duty speaks unheard.

(Remark f.)

p. 124

SHORT QUOTATIONS.

111

I say unto all Watch. —It is a true saying that we are never too old to be taught.

(Rule.)

Coleridge said he had the habit of seeking for the “ good and

beautiful’ in all his eyes beheld.

(Remark c.)

There is no foundation for the popular doctrine that a state may

flourish by arts and crimes.

(Rule.)

Some dream that they can silence, when they will, The storm of passion, and say “‘ Peace, be still.’

(Rem. v, and Rule.)

It has long been a subject of inquiry whether there existed in nature a universal language.

(Rule.)

Keep it in view that the great object of study is to fit the mind to be an instrument of usefulness in life.

(Rule.)

It is not enough that we have great qualities: we must also have the management of them.

(Remark ce.)

A celebrated modern writer says “Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take care of themselves.”

(Rule.)

We affirm that, without some portion of enthusiasm, no person ever became a true poet or painter.

(Remark d, second sentence.)

It was said of Socrates that he brought philosophy down from heaven to dwell among men.

(Rule.)

I may say that, of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education. (Remark d, second sentence.) Tell me when was it that you felt yourself most strongly inclined

to go astray ?-— Tell me when it was that you felt yourself most strongly inclined to go astray.

(Rule, and Remark g.)

It is one among the pious and valuable maxims which are ascribed to Francis de Sales “ A judicious silence is always better

than truth spoken without charity.”

(Rule.)

In delineating the character of Dr. Bowditch, it deserves to be mentioned that he was eminently a self-taught and self-made man. (Remark e.)

Let me ask you are your resolutions as firm as when you first set

out in the spiritual life? — Let me ask you if your resolutions are as firm, &c.

(Rule, and Remark g.)

The poet

Gray, one of the most intellectual and fastidious of

men, says ‘Happy they who can create a rose-tree, or erect a

honeysuckle!”

(Rule.)

Thou knowest that principle, grounded in the eternal laws of mind and emanating from the unchangeable essence of God, cannot perish.

(Rule, and first of Remark d.)

p. 125

112

THE COMMA.

RULE

XIX.

Numeral Figures and Words.

With the exception of dates, figures consisting of four or more characters are pointed with a comma before every three from the end, or between each

class of

hundreds. EXAMPLE.

The population of China in 1748, according to the French missionaries, was 150,029,855 ; in 1825, according to Dr. Morrison, 352,866,002. REMARKS.

a. Properly speaking, the comma, as here used, is neither a gram-~ matical nor a rhetorical point; but, for the easy understanding of

the value of sums, it is exceedingly useful.

The rule is inserted in

this place, merely because a more appropriate situation could not

be found for it in the book. 6. When put in words, numbers are usually left unpointed; as, to take the first calculation in the example, “The population of China in 1748 was fifteen millions twenty-nine thousand eight hundred and fifty-five.” c. When round numbers are used, and no comparison is made

between one sum and another, words are preferable to figures; as, “According to Balbi, the entire population of Africa is thirty-nine millions.” EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Punctuate the figures, except those expressive of dates :—

The sun is 888210 miles in diameter, about 2774692 miles in circumference, and distant from the earth about 95000000 of miles.

The Rocky Mountains rise 12500° feet above the level of the

ocean; the Andes, 21440 feet.

On April 17, 1790, Dr. Franklin died at Philadelphia, aged eightyfour, and bequeathed $4444 to the people of Boston, for the benefit

of young married artificers.

Population of the city of New York in 1790 was 33181; in 1800, 60489; in 1810, 96873; in 1820, 128706; in 1880, 202589; in 1840, 812710; in 1850, 515507.

p. 126

113

Sect. II — THE SEMICOLON.

The Semicoton [ ; ] is used to separate such parts

of a sentence as are somewhat less closely connected than those separated by a comma. RULE

A Sentence consisting of Two Conjoined Clauses.

When two clauses are united by either of the conjunctions for, but, and, or an equivalent word, — the one clause perfect in itself, and the other added as a matter of inference, contrast, or explanation, — they are separated by a semicolon.

EXAMPLES.

1. Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal.

2. Genius breaks from the fetters of criticism; but its wanderings are sanctioned by its majesty and wisdom.

8. Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth ; and it has ever been esteemed a presage of rising merit.

REMARKS.

. When a conjunction unites two clauses incapable of being

subdivided by a comma, in the last of which the nominative is_ understood, the insertion of a comma between the clauses is see able to that of the semicolon. Thus, were the nominative “ it,” the third example, omitted, the sentence would be punctuated as follows: “ Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth, and has ever been esteemed a presage of risingmerit.” — See page 98.

6. When a sentence consists of three or more clauses, united by a conjunction, none of which are susceptible of division, a semicolon 8

p. 127

114

THE SEMICOLON.

should be put between those which are least connected in sense, and a comma only between the others; as, “ The woods may disappear, but the spirit of them will never now; for it has been felt by a poet, and we can feel for ever what he felt.’’

ORAL EXERCISE.

Repeut the preceding Definition and Rule, and say why semicolons are inserted in the following sentences : —

All cannot be great; and nobody may reasonably expect all the

world to be engaged with lauding his merits. Idleness is the parent of every vice; but well-directed activity is the source of every laudable pursuit and worldly attainment.

Examinations are formidable even to the best prepared; for the

greatest fool may ask more than the wisest man can answer. An entire retreat from worldly affairs is not what religion requires;

nor does it even enjoin a long retreat from them. Religion must be the spirit of every hour; but it cannot be the

meditation of every hour. A clownish air is but a small defect; yet it is enough to make a man disagreeable.

We have carved a cross upon our altars; but the smoke of our sacrifice goes up to Thor and Odin still. Reasoning implies doubt and uncertainty; and therefore God does not reason.

Endless existence is a great truth; but an immortality of pure

affections and holy employments is far greater. Men must have recreation; and literature and art furnish that which is most pure, innocent, and refining.

Do not think yourself perfect; for imperfection is natural to humanity. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden; but Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. Life is felt to be a great and gracious boon by all who enjoy its

light; and this is not too much felt.

Never value yourself upon your fortune; for this is the sign of a

weak mind. Virtue is a real honor; whereas all other distinctions are merely titular.

Distracted and surprised with deep dismay At these sad tidings; but no time was then For long indulgence to their tears or grief.

p. 128

TWO CONJOINED CLAUSES.

115

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Let the following sentences be punctuated agreeably to the preceding Rule ana Remarks :—

Make a proper use of your time for the loss of it can never be regained.

Truth will pass down in fragments to posterity but posterity will collect and compose them into a whole.

Ivy is the beauty of old ruins and your faith is -ot unlike it for it springs up so strongly from amidst fallen hopes. Remark 6.) Mere knowledge may be idle but belief and love will, and must, go forthin action.

Heis a freeman whom the truth makes free

And all are slaves beside.

Chaucer followed nature everywhere but never went beyond her. (Remark a.)

Good and evil are inseparable companions but the latter often

hides behind the back of the former. Liberal dealing is better than almsgiving for it tends to prevent

pauperism, which is better than to relieve it. The proud have no friends in prosperity for then they know nobody and none in adversity for then no one knows them.

(Rem. b.)

Property left to a child may soon be lost but the inheritance of virtue will abide for ever.

Outward suffering is the lot of human nature and it is cheering to see it bravely borne even on the battle-field. A good conscience is a continual feast and proves a spring of joy amidst the greatest distresses.

(Remark a.)

The study of truth is perpetually joined with the love of virtue

for there is no virtue which derives not its original from truth. A little philosophy inclineth men’s minds to atheism but depth in

philosophy bringeth men’s minds to religion. Infidelity is not always built upon doubt for this is diffident nor philosophy always upon wisdem for this is meek.

(Remark 0.)

Some persons make a long story short but most persons maks a short story long. — Scott built a castle but he broke his heart. '

We promise according to our hopes but perform according to our (Remark a.)

fears.

The esteem of wise and good men is ‘the greatest of all temporal

encouragements tc virtue and itis the mark of an abandoned spirit to have no regard to it.

p. 129

116

THE SEMICOLON. RULE I. Expressions divided into Simpler Parts.

A semicolon is placed between two or more parts of a, sentence, when these, or any of them, are divisible by a comma into smaller portions. EXAMPLES.

1. Men are not to be judged by their looks, habits, and appearances; but by

the character of their lives and conversations, and by their works. 4. The noblest prophets and apostles have been children once; lisping the

speech, laughing the laugh, thinking the thought, of boyhood. 8. As we perceive the shadow to have moved, but did not perceive it moving; s0 our advances in learning, as they consist of such minute steps, are

perceivable only by the distance. REMARKS.

a. Itis obvious, that, if the smaller portions of a sentence require to be separated by a comma from each other, the construction and sense of the whole passage will be more readily perceived, if the larger divisions are set apart by the insertion of a point indicating a -ess intimate connection..

This will show the propriety of putting

a semicolon, in the first example, between the negative and the

affirmative portion of the sentence; in the second, between the clause and the series of phrases; and, in the third, between the members. _ 6. When, however, in a sentence resolvable into two or more larger portions that require to be separated by a semicolon, the last ends

with a series of phrases, of which only the final one is capable of subdivision, the comma will usually be found sufficient to distinguish

all the final terms.

Thus: “ As, with a small telescope, a few feet in

length and breadth, man learns to survey heavens beyond heavens

almost infinite; so, with the aid of limited senses and faculties, does

he rise to the conception of what is beyond all visible heavens, beyond all conceivable time, beyond all imagined power, beautyYy, and gre: ”)

. When the insertion of a semicolon would tend to break up the

harmony or the dependencies of the thought expressed, the larger

portions of a sentence, though its smaller parts are susceptible of

being grammatically divided, should be separated only by a comma,

p. 130

_EXPRESSIONS DIVIDED INTO PARTS.

117

as.in the following passage: ‘ Like one of those wendrous rocking

stones reared by the Druids, which the finger of a child might vibrate to its centre, yet the might of an army could not move from its place, | our Constitution is so nicely poised and balanced, that it

seems to sway with every breath of opinion, yet so firmly rooted in the heart and affections of the people, that the wildest storms of treason and fanaticism break over it in-vain.’? This sentence, though containing seven grammatical parts, or pointed groups of words, is

divisible into two main portions, the first ending with the word

nlace;’? but these larger portions cannot be more separated from each other than the smaller ones, because they are so compactly and finely bound together, that any other mark than a comma would tend to loosen their connection, and to mar the unity which runs throughout the whole passage.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Assign the reason for the insertion of semicolons in the following sentences : —

Prosperity is naturally, though net necessarily, attached to virtue

and merit; adversity, to vice and folly. The furnace of affliction may be fierce; but, if it refineth thy soul, the good of one meek thought shall outweigh years of torment. Every thing that happens is both a cause and an effect; being the effect of what goes before, and the cause of what follows.

There is a fierce conflict of good and evil throughout the universe; but good is in the ascendant, and must triumph at last. Argument, as usually managed, is the worst sort of conversation; as it is generally, in books, the worst sort of reading.

The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn; and Egypt, Greece, Rome, Gaul, Britain, America, lie folded already in the first man.

He was respectful, not servile, to superiors; affable, not improperly familiar, to equals; and condescending, not supercilious, to those

beneath him.

The little, bleak farm, sad and affecting in its lone and extreme simphcity, smiled like the paradise of poverty; when the lark, lured

thither by some green barley-field, rose ringing over the solitude. As a malicious censure, craftily worded and pronounced with

assurance, is apt to pass with mankind for shrewd wit; so a virulent maxim in bold expressions, though without any justness of thought, is readily received for true philosophy.

p. 131

118.

THE SEMICOLON.

It is the first point of wisdom to ward off evils; the second, to make them beneficial.

The look that is fixed on immortality wears not a perpetual smile;

and eyes, through which shine the light of other worlds, are often _ dimmed with tears.

The golden rule is a protest against selfishness; and selfishness, cleaving as it does to the inmost core of our being, is the besetting sin of the world. Books are standing counsellors and preachers, always at hand,

and always disinterested; having this advantage over oral instructors,

that they are ready to repeat their lesson as often as we please. EXERCISES TO

WRITTEN.

Agreeably to the Rule (p. 116), insert semicolons in the following sentences : ~

By granting that intellectual improvement was unfavorable to ‘productions of the imagination, we should look to the least culti-

vated minds for bolder flights than to Milton, Pope, or Byron the _ absurdity of which is seen by the mere statement of it. Wordsworth, in his poetry, works out wisdom as it comes from

the common heart of man, and appeals to that heart in turn causing us to recognize the truth, that there is something in humanity which deserves alike our love and reverence. The most precious of all possessions is power over ourselves power

to withstand trial, to bear suffering, to front danger power over plea-

sure and pain power to follow our convictions, however resisted by menace and scorn the power of calm reliance in scenes of darkness and storms.

There, cold and lifeless, is the heart which just now was the seat

of friendship there, dim and sightless, is the eye whose radiant and

enlivening orb beamed with intelligence and there, closed for ever,

are those lips on whose persuasive accents we have so often and so

lately hung with transport.

But who the melodies of morn can tell? —

The wild brook, babbling down the mountain-side The lowing herd the sheepfold’s simple bell The pipe of early shepherd, dim descried In the lone valley echoing far and wide, The clamorous horn along the cliffs above

The hollow murmur of the ocean-tide The hum of bees the linnet’s lay of love And the full choir that wakes the universal grove.

p. 132

EXPRESSIONS DIVIDED INTO PARTS.

119

Insert commas and semicolons in the following sentences, where they are required by the references : —

Be not anxious impatient over-inquisitive but thoughtful serious

and calm.

(Page 116, Rule; and p. 87, Rule.)

If ever Christianity appears in its power it is when it erects its _ trophies upon the tomb when it takes up its votaries where the world leaves them and fills the breast with immortal hope in dying moments.

(Page 116, Rule; p. 89, Rule and d; p. 98, Rule.)

When we look up to heaven and behold the sun shining in glory or the moon and the stars walking in brightness untaught nature prompts us to adore Him that made them to bow down and worship in the temple not made with hands.

(Page 116, Remark c; p. 98.)

Every particle of dust every grain of sand every minutest atom

is an active agent in the mighty whole making itself felt through all the masses in our solar system and through this on all systems in the universe.

(Rule, p. 116; and Ruie, p. 98.)

When the virtuous father of a family stands before us great in native worth of soul amidst all the outward tokens of poverty and an humble calling what a feeling of honor and sympathy goes forth

spontaneously from our hearts to greet that truest expression of

human respectability!

(Page 116, Remark c; p. 64; p. 79, 2.)

_ As we trust the long-tried affection of a human friend when for reasons satisfuctory to him he now and then withholds from us hig ultimate purposes so pious souls acquiescing in ignorance and conscious of absolute dependence on the Parent Mind dissolve their fears and their doubts in perfect faith.

(Page 116, Rule; p. 89, Rule

and d; and p. 64.) There also are the eloquence the literature the poetry of all times and tongues, — those glorious efforts of genius that rule with a neverdying sway over our sympathies and affections commanding our smiles and tears kindling the imagination warming the heart filling the fancy with beauty and awing the soul with the sublime the ter-

rible the powerful the infinite.

(Page 116, Rule and 5; pp. 87, 57,

64, 98.)

Though sometimes on passing from the turmoil of the city and the heats of restless life into the open temple of the silent universe we are tempted to think that there is the taint of earth and here the

purity of heaven yet sure it is that God is seen by us through man

rather than through nature and that without the eye of our brother and the voices of our. kind the winds might sigh and the stars look

down on us in vain.

(Page 116, Rule; p. 64; p. 98, Rule and 8.)

p. 133

THE SEMICOLON.

120

RULE

A Series of Expressions having a Common Dependence.

When, in a series of expressions, the particulars depend on a commencing or a concluding portion of the sentence, they should be separated from each other by a semicolon, if they are either laid down as distinct propositions, or are of a compound nature. EXAMPLES,

1. Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her operations; that

she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries, ‘of which we have not the slightest idea. 2. To give an early preference to honor above gain, when they stand in competition; to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without

dishonest arts; to brook no meanness, and stoop to no dissimulation, — are

the indications of a great mind, the presages of future eminence and usefulness in life.

3. If we think of glory in the field; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the purest patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private; of morals

without a stain; of religious feelings without intolerance and without extravagance, — the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation of all these ideas. REMARKS.

a. The first sentence exemplifies a series of clauses, being each a distinct proposition, but depending all on the words that precede them, namely, “philosophers assert.’?

The second example illus-

trates a series of expressions, the first two consisting each of a phrase and a clause; the third, of two coupled phrases; and all depending on the portion which concludes the sentence, — on the

predicate, “are the indications of a great mind,” &c.

The third

example exhibsts a series of phrases, which, according to Rule XVI., p. 98, would be punctuated only with a comma, were it not for the

compound phrase, “of the highest integrity, public and private,” the subdivision of which requires to be distinguished by a point less significant than that between the other phrases.

6. Commas are sometimes preferable to semicolons, when none of _ the particulars in a series of clauses, except perhaps the last, are

p. 134

SERIES OF EXPRESSIONS.

121

divisible into simpler portions. This mode of punctuation should be adopted when the particulars begin each with a verb, and have a

common nominative on which they depend, as in the following passage: “ Poetry | reveals to us the loveliness of nature, brings back the freshness of early feeling, revives the relish of simple pleasures,

keeps unquenched the enthusiasm which warmed the spring-time of our being, refines youthful love, strengthens our interest in human nature by vivid delineations of its tenderest and loftiest feelings,

spreads our sympathies over all classes of society, knits us by new. ties with universal being, and, through the brightness of its prophetic visions, helps faith to lay hold ‘on the future life.’? — See page 98.

c. If a series of phrases, of which some at least are compound,

though none of them parts of clauses, depends on the commencing or the concluding portion of a sentence, and any of them are capable

of being subdivided by means of a comma, all the -depending portions should be separated from each other by a semicolon; as, “ By doing or at least endeavoring to do, our duty to God and man; by acquiring

an humble trust in the mercy and favor of God, through Jesus Christ;

by cultivating our minds, and properly employing our time and thoughts; by correcting all unreasonable expectations from the world and from men; and, in the midst of worldly business, habituating — by such means ourselves to calm retreat and serious recollection, as these, it may be hoped, that, through the divine blessing, our days

shall flow in a stream as unruffled as the human state admits.” d. Accordingly, such phrases as those which occur in the following

sentence, though dependent on another expression, are punctuated better by the comma: “ The world is still renewed with fresh life and beauty, with a constant succession of trees and plants, with a

new race of animals, with a new generation of men.” e. Some punctuators insert a dash, instead of a semicolon or a

comma, between clauses or phrases dependent on other expressions. But, though it is not denied that in the more rhetorical kind of such sentences, this mark may be adopted, the semicolon or the comma is usually preferable, because the frequent recurrence of dashes, thence ensuing, would be unpleasant to the eye, without affording a proportionate aid to the understanding, and would mar the effect which they have when properly and necessarily used. Jf. The dash, however, appended to a comma, as in the second and third examples under the rule, is suitably put after the last particular, that the relation of all the particulars to the portion on which they

depend may be more clearly shown. — See Chap. III, Sect. HI.

p. 135

122

THE SEMICOLON. ORAL EXERCISE.

Show how the Rule (p. 120) may be applied: to the insertion of the semicolons in the following sentences :—

To have even our earthly being extended in everlasting remem-

brance; to be known wherever the name of virtue can reach; and to be known as the benefactors of every age, by the light which we have diffused, or the actions which we have performed or prompted,

— who

is there that does not feel some desire of this additional immortality ?

Is there any splendor to be found in distant travels beyond that which sets its morning throne in the golden east; any dome sublimer

than that of heaven; any beauty fairer than that of the verdant and blossoming earth; anv place, though invested with all the sanctities

of old time, like that home which is hushed and folded within the embrace of the humblest wall and roof? Leighton is great by the magnificence of thought; by the spontaneous emanations of a mind replete with sacred knowledge, and bursting with seraphic affections; by that pauseless gush of intellectual splendor, in which the outward shell, the interrnediate letter,

is eclipsed and almost annihilated, that full scope may be given to the mighty effulgence of the informing spirit.

Happy, thrice happy, he who relies on the eternity of the soul;

who believes, as the loved fall one after one from his side, that they have returned to their native country; who feels that each treasure

of knowledge he attains, he carries with him through illimitable being; who sees in virtue the essence and the element of the world

he is to inherit. There are men whose powers operate in leisure and in retirement, and whose intellectual vigor deserts them in conversation;

whom

merriment confuses, and objection disconcerts; whose bashfulness

restrains their exertion, and suffers them not to speak till the time of speaking is past; or whose attention to their own character makes them unwilling to utter at hazard what has not been considered, and

cannot be recalled.

That benevolence which prompted Jesus to incessant exertion;

which supported him through unparalleled suffering; which was alike the soul of his discourses, his actions, and his miracles; which shone through his life and his death; whose splendors were around

his brow when he expired on the cross, and when he sat down on the right hand of the Majesty on high, — what is it but a glorious revelation of the glorious truth, that God is iove?

p. 136

SERIES OF EXPRESSIONS.

1238

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

Insert. semicolons or commas between the particulars of. each series m these sentences, in accordance with the Rule and Remarks (pp. 120-21): —

The great tendency and purpose of poetry is to carry the mind above and beyond the beaten, dusty, weary walks of ordinary life to lift it into a purer element and to breathe into it more profound and generous emotion.

(Rule, and Remark c.)

He was framed to enjoy equally the fire of poetic or the abstruseness of philosophical writings to watch the meteor-flash of oratory or to trace in history’s page the even course of milder eloquence. (Remark d.)

Benevolence remembers the slave pleads his cause with God and man recognizes in him a human brother respects in him the sacred rights of humanity and claims for him, not as a boon but as a right, that freedom without which humanity withers, and God’s child is degraded into a tool or a brute.

(Remark b.)

If thou hast never tasted the holy peace which descends into the simplest heart, when it fervently realizes the presence of God if no gleam from the future life ever brightens thy earthly way if the sores and irritations of thy contact with the world are never soothed — thou and softened by the healing consciousness of a divine love, hast studied to little purpose, and the fountains of a true happiness are yet sealed up to thee.

(Rule.)

The bad phenomenon of character, which is mainly to be traced to impulse, is that of uncertainty of a being on whom no dependence

can be placed who is driven hither and thither by every wind that

blows who receives impressions one day from one quarter, another day from another who has neither uxed principles in his intellect, nor harmony and consistency in his conduct.

(Rule.)

No matter in what language the strauger’s doom may have been pronounced no matter what complexion, incompatible with freedom, an Indian or an African sun may have burned upon him no matter in what disastrous battle his liberty may have been cloven down no matter with what solemnities he may have been devoted upon the

altar of slavery, — the first moment he touches the sacred soil of Britain, the altar and the god sink together in the dust his soul walks abroad in her own majesty his body swells beyond the measure of his chains, that burst from around him and he stands redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled by the irresistible Genius of Universal Emancipation. (Rules, pp. 120, 116.)

p. 137

124

THE SEMICOLON.

Let the following paragraphs be punctuated throughout, in consistency wrth the Rule and

Remarks (pp. 120-21), and with preceding portions of th

work :—

Wherever on this earth an understanding is active to know and

serve the truth wherever a heart beats with kind and pure and generous affections wherever a home spreads its sheltering wing over

husband and wife and parent and child — there under every diversity of outward circumstance the true worth and dignity and peace of man’s soul are within reach of all.

In the light of beauty that floats over the changing aspects of

the

material universe in the grand interpreting thought which pervades the broken story of the ages and translates it into coherency in the spirit which comes to you from the smiles of gladness and the tears

of sorrow and softens your heart in genial sympathy with human weal and human woe in the interchange of ideas which kindles enthusiasm and draws a higher meaning and purpose out of life — acknowledge realities which transcend the limits of sense own a spiritual world whose mysteries encompass you on every side by whose laws you are bound and in whose issues of endless unfolding you are yourself perhaps destined to be involved.

Those who have shone in all ages as the lights of the world the

most

celebrated

names that are recorded in the annals of fame

legislators the founders of states and the fathers of their country on whom succeeding ages have looked back with filial reverence

patriots the guardians of the laws who have stemmed the torrent of corruption in every age heroes the saviours of their country who

have returned victorious from the field of battle or more than victo rious who have died for their country philosophers who have opened the book of nature and explained the wonders of almighty power

bards who have sung the praises of virtue and of virtuous men whose strains carry them down to immortalit — y with a few excep-

tions have been uniformly on the side of goodness and have been as distinguished in the temple of fame. It was one of the maxims which governed their lives that there is nothing in nature which can

compensate wickedness that although the rewards and punishments

which influence illiberal and ungenerous minds were set aside that although the thunders of the Almighty were hushed and the gates of paradise were open no more they would follow religion and virtue

for their own sake and co-operate with eternal Providence in per-

petual endeavors

to favor the good to depress the bad and to promote the happiness of the whole creation.

p. 138

SENTENCES SLIGHTLY CONNECTED. RULE

(195

IV.

Short Sentences slightly Connected.

When several short sentences follow one another,

slightly connected in sense or in construction, they should be separated by a semicolon. EXAMPLES.

1. Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals grow, live, and feel. 2. Every thing grows old; every thing passes away; every thing disappears.

3. She presses her child to her heart; she drowns it in her tears; her fancy eatches more than an angel’s tongue could describe. REMARKS.

a. Without instituting any comparison between the merits of a concise and a diffuse style of composition, ~ which, indeed, is out of our province, — we may observe, that a printed page, when crowded with short sentences, and having, in consequence, a great number of capitals and large spaces, is offensive to the eye. As a matter of taste, therefore, as well as of propriety, it is recommended, that, wherever a number of short successive sentences are evidently allied to one another in thought, expression, or construction, as in the examples under the rule, semicolons be substituted for full points.

6. In poetry very often occur short sentences which could not be separated by a full point, without destroying the connection which subsists between them; for, hampered by the peculiar struc-

ture of verse, and more attentive to the fineness of his thoughts, the harmony of his numbers, and the appropriateness of his imagery, than to any regular train of ideas, the poet is frequently obliged to

omit the connecting and disjunctive particles, so useful in prose composition in knitting together parts of sentences which are closely related in sense, and in separating those which are distinct. Especially in the more common kinds of verse, consisting of stanzas

regularly formed, as used in songs, ballads, and hymns, it is better

to point the sentences, of which they consist, with semicolons or colons, according to their various relations, except where the distinctions in thought and expression are prominent; for, in all such cases, periods must be used.

p. 139

126

THE SEMICOLON.

c. When, in a series of short sentences, each particular is constructed exactly alike, and the last is preceded by the conjunction and, the separation may be indicated by a comma, instead of a semicolon, agreeably to the rule on page 98; as, “ The pride of wealth is contemptible, the pride of learning is pitiable, the pride of dignity

is ridiculous, and the pride of bigotry is insupportable.”

ORAL EXERCISE.

What is the reason fur the insertion of semicolons in these sentences ? —

The wind and rain are over; calm is the noon of day; the clouds are divided in heaven; over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. The old men sit at their doors; the gossip leans over her counter;

the children shout and frolic in the streets. There is good for the good; there is virtue for the faithful; there

is victory for the valiant; there is spirituality for the spiritual.

“ The evidences of religion have been collected; its doctrines have

been elucidated; the attacks of its enemies have been repelled; the morals of its professors, upon the whole, have been purified.

When a writer reasons, we look only for perspicuity; when he

describes, we expect embellishment; when he decides or relates, we

desire plainness and simplicity.

The Christian orator speaks the truth plainly to his hearers; he awakens them; he shows them their impending danger; he excites

them to action. The temples are profaned; the soldier’s curse resounds in the.

house of God; the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs; horses neigh beside the altar. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; tragedy represents

a disastrous event; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of man-

kind; pastoral poetry describes rural life; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. Full many a gem of purest ray serene

The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear; Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air.

We pay no homage at the tomb of kings to sublime our feelings; we trace no line of illustrious ancestors to support our dignity; we

recur to no usages, sanctioned by the authority of the great, to protract our rejoicing.

No: we love liberty; we glory in the rights

of men; we glory in independence.

p. 140

SENTENCES SLIGHTLY CONNECTED.

127

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Separate these short sentences by means of semicolons, in accordance with the Rule and Remarks (p. 125): —

He is poor perhaps his plans have been defeated he finds it difficult to provide for the exigencies of life sickness is permitted to invade the quiet of his household long confinement imprisons his activity.

When we read a classical poet, we feel as if we,had entered a marble temple, where a cool silence reigus a few quiet statues gleam around us, pure and naked a few short inscriptions tell of the deeds of heroes all is calm, grand, and simple, to the highest per.

fection of art.

There is a pleasure in the pathless woods There is a rapture on the lonely shore

There is society, where none intrudes, By the deep sea, and music in its roar.

The world is fair around thee the bright and blessed sun shineth on thee the green and flowery fields spread far, and cheer thine eye,

and invite thy footstep the groves are full of melody ten thousand

creatures range freely through all the paths of nature: but thou art not satisfied as they are.

Genius, mental power, has surrounded your homes with comfort

it has given you the command of the blind forces of matter it has exalted and consecrated your affections it has brought God’s immeasurable universe nearer to your hearts and imaginations it has made flowers of paradise spring up even in poor men’s gardens.

It is pleasant to be virtuous and good, because that is to excel

many others it is pleasant to grow better, because that is to excel our-

selves it is pleasant to mortify and subdue our lusts, because that is victory it is pleasant to command our appetites and passions, and to keep them in due order within the bounds of reason and religion, because thatis empire.

Saints have established our religion by their lives martyrs have

confirmed it by their deaths hypocrites have added strength to it by their dissimulation tyrants have purified it by their persecutions infidels have corroborated it by their opposition the arrows of its enemies have served for its protection the resistance which it has

met with from the combined wit and genius and malice of mankind

have brought forth those illustrious and immortal defences which establish its truth upon the basis of demonstration.

p. 141

128

THE SEMICOLON.

RULE

Lists of Words, Phrases, and Numbers.

A semicolon is put before as, viz. to wit, namely,

a. @, or that vs, when they precede an example or a specification of particulars, or subjects

enumerated ;

and also between these particulars, when they consist each of a disjunct pair of words, or of a single word or phrase but slightly connected with the others. EXAMPLES.

1. Many words are differently spelled in English; as, “‘ Inquire, enquire; jail, gaol; sceptic, skeptic.”

2. To Greece we are indebted for the three principal orders of architecture; namely, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian.

8. De Quincey’s Philosophical Writers, 2 vols. tosh; Kant; Herder; Richter; Lessing. REMARK.

Vol. 1. Hamilton; MackinVol. 2. Bentley; Parr.

When as, namely, that is, &c., with the terms after them, are used parenthetically, they should be preceded only by a comma;

as,

“ The word ‘ reck,’ that is, care, denotes a stretching of the mind.”

_~—“ Of the three cardinal virtues, namely, faith, hope, and charity, the greatest is charity.”” — See pp. 64, 72.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Say why semicolons are used in the following sentences :—

The inseparable preposition pre is derived from the Latin pra; as in “ prefix, prejudice, predetermine.”

Some men distinguish the period of the world into four ages; viz., the golden age, the silver age, the brazen age, and the iron age. Logicians say that the operations of the mind are three; namely, 1. Simple apprehension; 2. Judgment; 3. Discourse, or reasoning. Our duties to individuals are classed under four heads; viz., as

arising from affinity; friendship; benefits received; contract. Find the increase in the population from 1790 to 1800; to 1810; 1820; 1880; 1840; 1850; from 1800 to 1810; 1810 to 1850.

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129

Sect. II. — THE COLON.

The Coton [:] is used in a sentence between

parts less connected than those which are divided by a

semicolon, but not so independent as separate, distinct

sentences. REMARKS.

a. It is to be regretted that some grammarians have expressed 4

wish to discard the use of the colon, and that others have ventured even to expel it from their systems of punctuation.

But, though in

former times it was common to employ this point where the semi-

colon or the period might have been more serviceable, there are in composition well-ascertained cases in which the insertion of the colon tends to bring out the idea of a writer with greater facility. The truth of this remark may be tested by a comparison of the sentences which will now be exhibited to illustrate the proper use of the colon, with those which have been cited in pp. 118-28 in exempli-

fication of the semicolon, and with others, of a different character. requiring the period, which will be treated of in the next section. 6. On the other hand, some writers are accustomed to insert colons between clauses or phrases, where, both from the construction and the sense, semicolons should be used. Thus, in a work recently published, which, though remarkable for the excellence of its thoughts and the beauty of its style, is very inaccurately punctuated, the larger portions of the following passages are separated by the colon,

instead of the semicolon: “There are sorrows that affect a more

private sphere of action: and these, too, have ‘their appropriate

compensations.’ —‘‘ We must not violate the first principles of eternal reason: we must not disregard those instinctive promptings of our spiritual nature which are as much fundamental realities of our being, and as essential conditions of all truth, as the principles of reason itself’: and, in our earnest efforts to find out God and understand his ways, we must admit no view inconsistent with the highest notion that we can form of a perfect Spirit.” 9

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130

THE COLON.

RULE

Two Clauses not joined by a Conjunction.

A colon should be put after a clause that is complete

in itself, but is followed, without a conjunction, by some remark, inference, or illustration. EXAMPLES.

1. Virtue is too lovely and useful to be immured in a cell: the world is her sphere of action.

2. Nor was the religion of the Greek drama a mere form: it was full of truth, spirit, and power.

8. In business there is something more than barter, exchange, price, payment: there is a sacred faith of man in man. REMARK S.

a. The chief difference between this rule and that on page 118

is, that the semicolon is used between two clauses when they are

united by a conjunction, and the colon when the particle is omitted. Thus, —

Avoid affectation; for it is a contemptible weakness. Avoid affectation: it is a contemptible weakness.

In many cases, however, the insertion of the connective would injure the beauty or force of the sentiment, as in the examples under the rule.

6. When the conjunction is omitted between clauses having only

one verb, a semicolon is preferable, because, by the ellipsis of the

verb, the portions of the sentence are dependent in their construction, and more closely allied; as, “The path of truth is a plain and safe path; that of falsehood, a perplexing maze.’’-— See page 104. c. Two clauses, of which the former raises the expectation of the latter, or which express a comparison or a contrast one with the other, but without the use of a connecting word, are subject to the rule; as, “ Anger is like rain: it breaks itself upon that on which it falls.’ — “ Cowards die many times: the valiant never taste of death.”

d. Conformably also to the rule, a colon is put after the adverbs

yes, no, or after the vocative case when following them, if they are equivalent to a sentence answering a question previously asked or

— implied; as, “ Will he pretend to say that this is an offensive war,

p. 144

TWO CLAUSES NOT CONJOINED. a war of conquest?

131

Yes: the gentleman has dared to make this

assertion, and for reasons no less extraordinary than the assertion itself.’ —“ Can Rolla’s words add vigor to the virtuous energies

which inspire your hearts?

No: you have judged, as I have, the

foulness of the crafty plea by which these bold invaders would

delude you.’? These words are, indeed, often found with a mark of exclamation after them; but they are merely abbreviated, though

forcible, modes of expressing approval or denial, and have the

signification of the sentence, “‘I emphatically answer in the affirmative,” or “in the negative.”

e. When placed at the beginning of several sentences, to all of which they refer, the adverbial words again, once more, in conclusion, and the absolute phrases to proceed, to conclude, &c., which have the import of clauses, may be distinguished by a colon; as, “ To swm up all: My friends, the time is short. We are as guests in a strange Jand, who tarry but one night. We wander up and down,” &c. ORAL EXERCISES.

After reciting the Definition of the colon, mention why that point ts inserted wn the following sentences :—

Harbor no malice in thy heart: it will be a viper in thy bosom. Men’s evil manners live in brass: their virtues we write in wator. Be on thy guard against flattery: it is an insidious poison. Do not insult a poor man: his misery entitles him to pity.

Never flatter the people: leave that to such as mean to betray them. Endeavor to excel: much may be accomplished by perseverance.

Study to acquire the habit of thinking: no study is more important. Reading is but an instrument: education is to teach its best use. To rule one’s anger is well: to prevent it is better.

The word must be spoken: we want more justice, and less charity. It is a miserable thing to live in suspense: it is the life of a spider.

There is no mortal truly wise and restless at the same time:

wisdom is the repose of the mind. A human heart throbs beneath the beggar’s gabardine: it is no more than this that stirs with its beating the prince’s mantle.

The present life is not wholly prosaic, precise, tame, and finite: to the gifted eye, it aboundsin the poetic.

To be free, to have the mind of a freeman, is not to consider

liberty as a privilege which a few only are to enjoy, and which, like

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1382

THE COLON.

some narrow and limited good, would become less by distribution: it

is to wish, and to wish ardently, that all partook of the blessing.

Selfishness is the poison of a true devotion: love is its only fitting instrument.

Birth and death have an indissoluble correlation: they presuppose

each other.

It is unworthy of one great people to think falsely of another: it is unjust, and therefore unworthy. The passionate are like men standing on their heads: they see all

things the wrong way.

Pride is increased by ignorance: those assume the most who know the least. — Do not despise human life: it is the gift of God.

He who receives a good turn should never forget it: he who does

one should never remember it. All reasoning is retrospect: it consists in the application of facts and principles previously known. Real goodness does not attach itself merely to life: it points to another world. Laziness grows on people: it begins in cobwebs, and ends in iron

chains. — The prodigal robs his heir: the miser robs himself.

Nothing is denied to well-directed labor: nothing is ever to be attained without it. The silence of nature is more impressive, would we understand it, than any speech could be: it expresses what no speech can utter.

Good temper is like a sunny day: it sheds a brightness over every thing. — Insist on yourself: never imitate.

Satire should not be like a saw, but a sword: it should cut, and

not mangle.

The philosophies of antiquity addressed themselves to the intel-

lect: the simple words-of Jesus lay hold of the heart. The actions of men are like the index of a book: they point out what is most remarkable in them. Character is like stock in trade: the more of it a man possesses,

the greater his facilities for making additions to it.

Men are often warned against old prejudices: I would rather warn them against new conceits. The greatness of a gift cannot be determined by its absolute amount: it can be truly ascertained only by a moral standard. Music resembles poetry: in each Are numerous graces which no methods teach, And which a master-hand alone can reach.

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TWO CLAUSES NOT. CONJOINED.

133

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.|

Let colons be mserted between the clauses of these sentences, in accordance with the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 1380-31): —

For the training of goodness, the ancient reliance was on the right discipline of habit and affection the modern is rather on illumination of understanding.

But no the Union cannot be dissolved its fortunes are too brilliant

to be marred; its destinies, too powerful to be resisted.

(Rule, and

Remarks d, 6.)

There is a true eloquence, which you cannot too much honor it calls into vigorous exercise both the understanding and the heart of the hearer.

As the pupil is often obliged to bend all his faculties to the task

before him, and tears sometimes. fall on the page heis studying; so it is in the school of God’s providence there are hard lessons in it. This is certain nothing can be done without a recurrence, before

every thing else, to strict justice in all the departments of human intercourse.

;

Strive to be a simple, honest, faithful man whatever hidden talent

you possess will then come forth in its genuineness, and exert all its

power. — Proceed I am all attention. Are these to be conquered by all Europe united? No, sir no united nation can be, that has the spirit to resolve not to be con-

quered. (Remark d.)

The prophet gives the incentives to action the philosopher supplies matter for reflection. One recurs to the heart and the conscience as his medium of influence the other addresses himself to pure

intellect.

It is with narrow-souled people as with narrow-necked bottles the less they have in them, the more noise they make in pouring it out. — A little praise is good for a shy temper it teaches it to rely on the kindness of others..

As the fire-fly only shines when on the wing, so it is with the human mind when at rest, it darkens. —- Cotemporaries appreciate the man, rather than his merit posterity will regard the merit, rather than the man. I care not, Fortune, what you me deny You cannot rob me of free Nature’s grace;

You cannot shut the windows of the sky,

Through which Aurora shows her brightening face.

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134

THE COLON.

RULE

Conjoined Members of Sentences.

When a sentence consists of two members which are united by a conjunction or an adverb, and either of them is divisible into clauses separated by semicolons, a colon should be used before the connecting word. EXAMPLES.

1. As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not gee it moving; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow: so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such

minute steps, are perceivable only by the distance.

2. Without the capacity of suffering, we might have been what the world, -

{n its common language, terms happy; the passive subjects of a series of agreeable sensations: but we could not have had the delights of conscience; we could not have felt what it is to be magnanimous, to have the toil and the

combat and the victory. REMARKS.

a. These sentences are obviously divisible each into two portions.

But, as they are susceptible of being subdivided into smaller parts, some of which should be separated by the semicolon, according to the rule on page 116; so, by reason of the principle that a remoter connection requires a point indicating a greater separation, the colon is introduced between the members; namely, before the con-

necting words “‘ so”? and “ but.’’

6. In a long sentence, crowded with distinct clauses, of which several are united by conjunctions, it is better to insert a period than

a colon between the two members, or largest portions; as in the following passage from Sir Humphrey Davy: “I envy no quality of mind or intellect in others, be it genius, power, wit, or fancy; but, if I could choose what would be most delightful, and I believe most

useful, to me, I should prefer a firm religious belief to every othor blessing.

For it makes life a discipline of goodness; creates new

hopes when all earthly hopes vanish; and throws over the decay, the destruction, of existence, the most gorgeous of all lights; awakens

life even in death, and from corruption and decay calls up beauty and divinity; makes an instrument of fortune, and shame the ladder

of ascent to Paradise; and, far above all combinations of earthly

p. 148

CONJOINED MEMBERS.

135

hopes, calls up the most delightful visions of ‘palms and amaranths, the gardens of the blest, the security of everlasting joys, where the sensualist and the sceptic view only gloom, decay, annihilation, and despair.”

c. The mode of punctuation recommended in the last remark is

worthy of being adopted in the generality of the long passages, whose

parts are joined by connecting or disjunctive words, which sometimes appear in the writings of the present day. But in the compositions of the old English writers, which, with much excellence of matter, are usually characterized more by unwieldiness than refinement of style, sentences often occur, whose members are united either by a relative proneun, which is sometimes preceded by a preposition, or by an adverb or participle equivalent to the pronoun. In such cases, it is seldom that the members, however lengthened, can be separated by a period, without injuring the texture of the parts. However painful, therefore, it may be to the eye of the reader to fall on a page unrelieved by periods and corresponding breaks, the editor or the printer of a work of that kind should conform his

punctuation to the nature of the composition; never deviating from

the original by substituting. a full point for the semicolon or the colon, unless where the character of the sentiments or the form of expressing them obviously admits of such a separation. Thus, the colon should be preserved between the members, or larger parts, of the following sentences; the first being taken from Dean Swift, and the second from an earlier writer, George Sandys: “I swore and subscribed to these articles with cheerfulness and content,

although some of them were not so honorable as I could have wished; which proceeded wholly from the malice of Skyresh Bol-

golam, the high admiral: whereupon my chains were immediately unlocked, and I was at full liberty.” —“ The parts I speak of are the most renowned countries and kingdoms: once the seats of most glorious and triumphant empires, the theatres of valor and heroical actions, the soils enriched with all earthly felicities; the places where Nature hath produced her wonderful works; where arts and sciences have been invented and perfected; where wisdom, virtue, policy, and civility have been planted, — have flourished; ... where the Son of God honored the earth with his beautiful steps, wrought the works of our redemption, triumphed over death, and ascended into glory: which countries, once so glorious and famous for their happy estate, are now, through vice and ingratitude, become the most deplored spectacles of extreme misery; the wild beasts of

p. 149

THE COLON.

136

mankind having broken in upon them, and rooted out all civility, and the pride of a stern and barbarous tyrant possessing the thrones of ancient and just dominion.” ORAL EXERCISE.

Why are colons inserted between the members of these sentences ? —

Every one must, of course, think his own opinions right; for, if he thought them wrong, they would no longer be his opinions: but there is a wide difference between regarding ourselves as infallible, and being firmly convinced of the truth of our creed.

He sunk to repose where the red heaths are blended; One dream of his childhood his fancy passed o’er: But his battles are fought, and his march it is ended;

The sound of the bagpipe shall wake him no more.

How many things are there which a man cannot, with any face or comeliness, say or do himself! A man can scarce allege his own merits with modesty, much less extol them; a man cannot sometimes brook to supplicate or beg; and a number of the like: but all these things are graceful in a friend’s mouth, which are blushing in a man’s Own.

When once our labor has begun, the comfort that enables us to endure it is the prospect of its end: for though, in every long work, there are some joyous intervals of self-applause, when the attention is recreated by unexpected facility, and the imagination soothed by incidental excellences not comprised in the first plan; yet the toil with which performance struggles after idea is so irksome and disgusting, and so frequent is the necessity of resting below that perfection which we imagined within our reach, that seldom any man obtains more from his endeavors than a painful conviction of

his defects, and a continual resuscitation of desires which he feols himself unable to gratify.

Patriots have toiled, and in their country’s cause Bled nobly; and their deeds, as they deserve,

Receive proud recompense. We give in charge Their names to the sweet lyre. The historic Muse, Proud of the treasure, marches with it down To latest times; and Sculpture, in her turn, Gives bond in stone and ever-during brass,

To guard them, and to immortalize her trust : But fairer wreaths are due, though never paid, To those who, posted at the shrine of truth, Have fallen in her defence.

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CONJOINED MEMBERS.

137

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Insert both the semicolon and the colon wherever required in these sentences :—

The republic may perish the wide arch of our ranged union may fall star by star its glories may expire stone after stone its columns and its Capitol may moulder and crumble all other names which adorn its annals may be forgotten but as long as human hearts shall anywhere pant, or human tongues shall anywhere plead, for

a true, rational, constitutional liberty, those hearts shall enshrinoe the memory, and those tongues shall prolong the fame, of George | Washington.

We are not merely to transmit the world as we receive it to

teach, in a stationary repetition, the arts which we have received as the dove builds, this year, just such a nest as was built by the dove that went out from the ark, when the waters had abated but we are to apply the innumerable discoveries, inventions, and improvements which have been successively made in the world, — — and combine and elaborate and never more than of late years, them into one grand system of condensed efficacy and quickened vitality, in forming and bringing forward our successors. We may abound in meetings and movements enthusiastic gatherings in field or forest may kindle all minds with a common sentiment great revivals may bear away thousands on a torrent of sympathy but it is all in vain, if men do not retire from the tumult to the silent culture of every right disposition and the quiet practice of every duty in vain, unless they patiently engrave the commandments on

inward tables, unless they hear a still voice in the soul, and retain a

steady warmth there, when the noise has ceased and the flames have

died away, as on the ancient mount of revelation.

As water, whether it be the dew of heaven or the springs of the earth, doth scatter and lose itself in the ground, except it be collected into some receptacle, where it may by union comfort and sustain itself and, for that cause, the industry of man hath framed and made spring-heads, conduits, cisterns, and pools, which men have accustomed likewise to beautify and adorn with accomplishments of magnificence and state, as well as of use and necessity so knowledge, whether it descend from divine inspiration or spring

from human sense, would soon perish, and vanish to oblivion, if it were not preserved in books, traditions, conferences, and places appointed, as universities, colleges, and schools, for the receipt and comforting the same.

p. 151

138

THE COLON.

RULE

UI.

Quotations, Remarks, &c., formally introduced.

A colon

should be

placed before a quotation,

speech, a course of reasoning, or a specification of articles or subjects, when formally introduced. EXAMPLES.

1. The air was sweet and plaintive; and the words, literally translated, were these: “The winds roared and the rains fell, when the poor white man, faint and weary, came, and sat under our tree.”

2. Let us take, in illustration, three poets, in an ascending scale of intellectual precedence:

Keats, the representative of sensitiveness;

Byron, of

wilfulmess; Shakspeare, of self-direction. REMARKS.

a. By a formal introduction to a quotation, &c., is meant the use

of any phrase, or mode of expression, drawing the attention of the reader to whatis about to be said.

6. Some writers put a dash after the colon,in order to distinguish

more clearly the quotation from the introductory matter; as, “ The words, literally translated, were these: —‘ The winds roared,’”’ &c.

But this seems unnecessary, unless the words cited begin a new paragraph, which usually occurs when they consist of more than | one sentence.

¢. When a quotation is short, and closely connected with the words preceding it, a comma between the parts is sufficient. — See page 108,

d. When quotations or remarks are introduced by one of the connective and explanatory words, as, namely, that is,

a semicolon

before and a comma after it are preferable to the colon; as, “I purchased the following articles; namely, tea, sugar, coffee, and raisins.”’

The reason is, that the connection between the introductory remark and the example, or the articles enumerated, is rendered more inti-

mate by the use of the explanatory word. — See page 128. e.

When the subjects or things specified

consist

of words or

phrases in apposition with a preceding noun, or with that which is equivalent to it, without any formal introduction, a comma and

a dash are used; as, ‘ Energy and audacity of will characterize all ruling men, — statesmen, generals, reformers, orators.’’

p. 152

QUOTATIONS FORMALLY INTRODUCED.

139

ORAL EXERCISE.

Say why colons are inserted before quotations, §c., in the following sentences : —

All our conduct towards men should be influenced by this im“portant precept: “ Do unto others as ye would that others should do unto you.”

The discourse consisted of two parts: in the first was shown the necessity of exercise; in the second, the advantages that would result from it.

Speaking of party zeal, Pope makes this judicious remark: “ There never was any party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever, in which the most ignorant were not the most violent; for a bee is not

a busier animal than a blockhead.”

Be our plain answer this: The throne we honor is the people’s choice; the laws we reverence are our brave fathers’ legacy; the faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds of charity with all mankind, and die with hope of bliss beyond the grave.

The philosopher Malebranche makes this curious remark: “ It is

possible that some creatures may think half an hour as long as we do a thousand years, or look upon that space of duration which we call a minute as an hour, a week, a month, or a whole age.” It is only necessary to make the experiment to find two things: one, how much useful knowledge can be acquired in a very little time; and the other, how much time can be spared, by good management, out of the busiest day.

In a letter from Oxford to my brother Amos, his late pupil, for whom John Henderson always entertained the highest esteem, he thus expresses himself: “ See that you govern your passions. What should grieve us but our infirmities ? what make us angry but our own faults?”

The words with which Beattie concludes one of the most beautiful stanzas of ‘his principal poem, express a sentiment with which it 19

impossible for us not to sympathize: —

*“ Oh! how canst thou renounce the boundless store Of charms that Nature to her votary yields? The warbling woodland, the resounding shore, ‘The pomp of groves, and garniture of fields; All that the genial ray of morning gilds, And all that echoes to the song of even;

All that the mountain’s sheltering bosom shields, And all the dread magnificence of heaven;—

Oh! how canst thou renounce, and hope to be forgiven?”

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140

THE COLON. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Let these sentences be punctuated agreeably to the preceding Remarks (p. 188): —

Rule and

We all admire this sublime passage “God said ‘Let there be

light;’ and there was light.”

(Rule, and Remark c.) Now, pray, remember this Unmixed carbonic acid gas, when

inhaled, is a deadly poison.

(Rule.)

The infinitive mood is often used as the nominative to a verb as, “To err”? that is, error, “is human.’ (Remark d ; and p. 128,

Remark.)

When the Roman historians describe an extraordinary man, this

always enters into his character as an essential part of it he was of incredible industry and of remarkable application. (Rule.)

Ye who still linger on the threshold of life, doubting which path to choose, remember that, when years shall be passed, and your feet shall stumble on the dark mountain, you will ery bitterly, but cry

in vain “QO youth! return: oh! give me back my early days.” (Remark c.) -

Silvio Pellico, in his excellent work on the “ Duties of Men,”’ thus remarks “ To love our country with truly elevated feeling, we ought

to begin by supplying it, in ourselves, with citizens, of whom that country need not feel ashamed.”

(Rule.)

Listening intently at the chimney, which communicated with that

below, I distinctly heard the husband utter these words “Well, come now:

must we kill them both?’

“ Yes;”” and I heard nothing more.

To which the woman replied

(Rule, and Remark ¢.)

When the love of fame acts upon a man of genius, the case

appears to stand thus The generality of the world, distinguished by

the name of readers, observe, with a reluctance not unnatural, a person raising himself above them.

All men have some desire of fame, and fame is grounded on comparison. (Rule.) | One of the best writers of the present day, but perhaps one of

the least known, — John James Tayler,— says, when comparing the labors of the philosopher with those of the prophet “ The philosopher, on the other side, cautiously accepting the material transmitted to

him, explores it with the keen edge of his analysis, and pares oft from the vital substance of truth the impure accretions which it has contracted in the grosser atmosphere of the popular belief, and which must check its growth and expansion when placed in the thin, pure

air of a higher region.”

(Rule.)

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141

TERMS IN THE RULE OF THREE. RULE

IV.

The Chanting Service in the Liturgy.

A mark similar to a colon is inserted in every verse

of the Psalms used in the “ Book of Common Prayer,” and in works of a like nature; as, “My tongue is the pen : of a ready writer.” REMARK.

This mark does not represent a grammatical point, but.is inserted

for the use of choirs, where the Psalms, and other portions of the Liturgy, are chanted; and serves only to divide a verse into two parts.

.eemmenenedd

RULE

Terms in the Rule of Three.

In arithmetical works, the terms used in the Rule of Three are set off by colons. Thus, the expression, “ As 111 lbs. is to $6.45, so is 87 lbs. to $2.15,” is put — “111 Ibs. : $6.45 : : 87 Ibs. : $2.15.” in the form, —

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

a. Some of the rules on the proper application of the colon and the dash ought to be rejected in works where their observance

would occasion ambiguity; as in books of arithmetic, where colons are used for proportion, and where the dash is put as a mark for subtraction. Should these marks frequently occur, it will not be improper to substitute a semicolon where the construction requires the grammatical colon or the dash.

6. In works printed prior to this century, the colon was some-

times used to denote abbreviation; and, even at the present day, it

is occasionally so employed in writing: This mode of punctuation, however, may be justly regarded as erroneous; the period being almost universally preferred as the mark denoting the contraction of words.

p. 155

142

Seot. IV. — THE

PERIOD.

The Prriop, or Full Point [ . ], serves to indicate

the end of a sentence which is assertive in its nature, and independent of any following sentence. RULE

LI.

Complete and Independent Sentences. _ When a sentence is complete in itself, and is neither

connected in construction with what follows, nor of an interrogatory or exclamatory nature, its termination is

marked with a period.

EXAMPLES.

1. Truth is the basis of every virtue. cepts be religiously obeyed.

It is the voice of reason.

Let its pre-

Never transgress its limits.

2. The right is the supreme good, and includes all other goods.

In seeking

and adhering to it, we secure our true and only happiness. REMARKS.

a. For the mode of pointing short sentences which are slightly

connected with each other, see page 125.

b. A full point is admissible between two parts of a long sentence, though they are closely connected in sense by a particle, when either of them can be divided into more simple parts, separated from one another by a semicolon or a colon; as in the following passage, in

which the writer treats of Shakspeare: “ Other men may have led, on the whole, greater and more impressive lives than he; other men, acting on their fellows through the same medium of speech that he used, may have expended a greater power of thought, and achieved a greater intellectual effect, in one consistent direction; other men,

too (though this is very questionable), may have contrived to issue

p. 156

INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

143

tne matter which they did address to the world, in more compact

and perfect artistic shapes. Bui no man that ever lived said such splendid extempore things on all subjects universally; no man that ever lived had the faculty of pouring out, on all occasions, such a

flood of the richest and deepest language.”

c. When the two larger portions of a continuous passage are joined by a conjunction, they may be separated by a period, if several of the minor parts are united to each other also by conjun*tions.— See p. 184, Remark 0.

d. A full point should be used between two sentences, joined by ion, though their parts are incapable of being separated conjunct a by a semicolon or a colon, if they do not depend one on the other

in construction, and are not directly connected; as, “ There are

thoughts and images flashing across the mind in its highest moods, to which we give the name of inspiration. Bui whom do we honor with this title of the inspired poet?”

e. From the last remark and example, it is evident that the kind of point used depends less on the connecting word than on the construction and nature of the sentences. Accordingly, we finds, numerous instances, particularly in the Bible, of not only sentence but paragraphs and chapters, beginning with and, and other conjunctions; as, “ Yor the kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that is a householder, who went out early in the morning to hire laborersa into his vineyard. And, when he had agreed with the laborers for penny a day, he sent them into his vineyard. And he went,’ &c. ORAL EXERCISES.

Mention the grammatical use of the period, and the reason for inserting

that

point in the sentences that follow : —

The benefits of conversation greatly depend on the previous attainments of those who are supposed either to communicate knowledge or to receive it. If, therefore, instruction be neglected, conversation will grow trifling; if perverted, dangerous. Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honorable. The subjects Hberal student will therefore endeavor to collect ideas on taste for a and es, Languag anding. underst the enrich can which He objects. literary his of part small a but form elegant letters, will

s properly so | will dedicate a great portion of his time to the science only in books, but denominated. He will search for knowledge, not in the exchange, the manufactory, the world at large. From these

p. 157

144

THE PERIOD.

various sources, he will collect food for the mind, on which he will

afterwards ruminate.

There lies upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a beautiful island, famous in story andinsong. Its area is not so great as that of the State of Louisiana, while its populationis almost half that

of the Union. It has given to the world more than its share of genius and of greatness. It has been prolificin statesmen, warriors,

and poets. Its brave and generous sons have fought successfully all

battles but their own.

In wit and humor, it has no equal; while its harp, like its history, moves to tears by its sweet but melancholy

pathos.

Be servants of truth and duty, each in his vocation. pure in

heart,

always

self-forgetful and noble.

earnest,

enthusiastic.

virtuous

Be sincere,

enthusiasm

It is the only inspiration now

vouchsafed to man. Blend humility with learning. Ascend above the present in place and time. Regard fame only as the eternal shadow of excellence. Bend in adoration before the right. Cultivate

alike the wisdom of experience and the wisdom of hope. Mindful of the future, do not neglect the past: awed by the majesty of antiquity, turn not with indifference from the future.

I would say to the people, You cannot, without guilt and dis. grace, stop where you are.

advance.

higher.

The past and the present call on you to

Let what you have gained be an impulse to something Your nature is too great to be crushed. You were not

created what you are, merely to toil, eat, drink, and sleep, like the If you will, you can rise. No power in society,

inferior animals.

no hardship in your condition, can depress you, keep you down, in knowledge, power, virtue, influence, but by your own consent. Make yourselves worthy of your free institutions, and strengthen and perpetuate them by your intelligence and your virtues.

This world is full of beauty, —full of innocent gladness. Open your inmost sense to all the influences of what is brightest and happiest in the scenes around you. Let the spirit be clear and

transparent, to receive and transmit these blessed influences of the Creator’s love, and send out the light. of them on other hearts.

a pure and gentle soul can feel them. not come to you in vain.

Only

Keep yours so that they do

There is impiety in letting all this beauty

rise and set on us daily unfelt.

To sympathize with the loveliness

which blooms and sparkles in every aspect of this terrestrial para-

dise is silent praise, — that worship of the heart, more audible to

the ear of God than the chanted litany of the cathedral.

p. 158

INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. —

145

In accordance with the Rule and the Remarks (pp. 142-8), say why periods are inserted in the following passages : —

Legitimate reasoning is impossible without severe thinking; and thinking is neither an easy nor an amusing employment. The reader who would follow a close reasoner to the summit and absolute prin-

ciple of any one important subject has chosen a chamois-hunter for

his guide. Our guide will, indeed, take us the shortest way, will save us many a wearisome and perilous wandering, and warn us of many a mock road, that had formerly led himself to the brink of chasms and precipices, or at least in an idle circle to the spot from whence he started. But he cannot carry us on his shoulders: we must strain our own sinews as he has strained his, and make firm footing on the naked rock for ourselves by the blood of toil from our own feet. There is no one, of ever so little understanding in what belongs to a human constitution, who knows not, that without action, motion, and employment, the body languishes and is oppressed; its nourishment runs to disease; the spirits, employed abroad, help to consume the parts within; and nature, as it were, preys upon her-

self, For although an inclination to ease, and moderate rest from action, be as natural and useful to us as the inclination we have towards sleep; yet an excessive love of rest, and a contracted aversion to employment, must be a disease in the mind, equai to that of a, lethargy in the body.

This calamity is peculiar to man. The inferior tribes know nothing of it. They obey the laws of their life, and so they have no dread of what is to come. The lamb gambols alike through the green pastures or to the place of slaughter. Up to the last flutter of her wings, the bird ceases not to trill her matins upon the air. But the only immortal being upon the earth lives in dread of death. The only being to whom death is an impossibility fears every day that it will come. And if we analyze the nature of this fear, and explore the cause of it, we shall not be at all certain that it will not follow the mere natural man into a future life, and have an important

part in its retributions.

When we look at different races of animals, though all partake of that mysterious property, life; yet what an immense and impassable distance is there between the insect and the lion! They have no bond of union, no possibility of communication. During the lapse of ages, the animalcules which sport in the sunbeams a summer’s day, and then perish, have made no approximation to the king of the forests. But in the intellectual wo1'd there are no such barriers, All minds are 10

p. 159

146

THE PERIOD.

essentially of one origin, one nature, kindled from one divine flame; and are all tending to one centre, one happiness.

This great truth, te us the greatest of truths, which lies at the foundation of all religion

and of all hope, seems to me not only sustained by proofs which satisfy the reason, but to be one of the deep instincts of our nature.

In whatever way, and in whatever century, the Homeric poems might be created and fashioned, they place before us a time when the heroic age was on the decline, or had perhaps already gone by.

For there are two different worlds which both exist together in the compositions of Homer, —the world of marvels and tradition, which still, however, appears to be near and lively before the eyes of the poet; and the living circumstances and present concerns of the world,

which produced the poet himself.

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Insert periods in their respective places, and substitute capitals for small letters at the beginning of the sentences . —

The character of Washington is among the most cherished con-

templations of my life it is a fixed star in the firmament of great names, shining, without twinkling or obscuration, with clear, steady,

beneficent light it is associated and blended with all our reflections

on those things which are near and dear to us. Truly good books are more than mines to those who can understand them they are the breathings of the great souls of past times

genius is not embalmed in them, as is sometimes said, but lives in them perpetually but we need not many books to answer the great ends of reading a few are better than many; and a little time, given to a faithful study of the few, will be enough to quicken thought and

enrich the mind.

We stand on the threshold of a new age, which is preparing to recognize new influences the ancient divinities of violence and wrong are retreating to their kindred darkness the sun of our moral uni-

verse is entering a new ecliptic, no longer deformed by images of animal rage, but beaming with the mild radiance of those heavenly signs, Faith, Hope, and Charity the age of chivalry has gone: an age of humanity has come the horse, which gave the name to the first, now yields to man the foremost place in serving him, in doing him good, in contributing to his welfare and elevation, there are fields of bloodless triumph nobler far than any in which warriors ever conquered here are spaces of labor wide as the world, lofty as heaven.

p. 160

HEADINGS AND SUBHEADS..

RULE

JA7

Headings, Subheads, Phrases in Titlepages, &c.

A period is put after a heading or a subhead, indi-

cating the kind of matter treated of; after any term placed over a column of contents or figure-work; after the address of a person or of persons, as used in epis-

tolary and other writings; after every signature to a document; after the name of a book or its description, preceding the author’s name, in a titlepage; and after any word or phrase used in imprints, catalogues, &c.,

when it is not intimately related to what follows. Thus: —

| CONTENTS.

Cuap. I. — INTRODUCTION.

Sect.

Page.

I.—The Importance and Uses of Correct Punctuation Notes illustrating its Value

Definitions of Sentences, &e. .

...

«©

Sect. II. — Plan of the Work, and Definitions of the Terms used ... 19 2.

To Mr. Solomon Piper.

Dear Sir, — We hereby acknowledge the receipt of your favor of the 25th

instant, addressed to our society, in which you are pleased, for reasons assigned, to present an organ to be placed in our new meeting-house for the purpose of aiding in public worship. Be pleased, dear sir, to accept the thanks of the society. Very gratefully and respectfully, yours, &c., JONATHAN K. Smrru. Asa H. Fisk. Dusutn, Feb. 28, 1858.

ASA HERALD.

| 3. The First-class Standard Reader, for Public and Private Schools. Sargent.

Boston: Phillips, Sampson, and Company.

By Epes

1854.

Mill (John Stuart). A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive. Third edition.

London, 1851.

Christmas with the Poets; a Collection of Songs, Carols, and Descriptive Verses, relating to the Festival of Christmas.

p. 161

148

THE PERIOD. REMARKS.

a. No point should be attached to the name of any article or subject which is followed, as in the first example, by leaders, or several points serving to lead the eye to a term or figure put at the

end of the line, and completing the sense. 6. When the subjects of a chapter or section, specified in a heading or in the contents or index of a book, are distinct, they should be separated by a period; but, if closely connected in sense, they are more appropriately marked by a minor point, according to the degree

of connection subsisting between them; as, “ Chap. II.

America. —

Discovery and Settlement: Columbus, Americus, Cabot, &c.

Con-

quest of Mexico: Cortez, Pizarro, &c.”

c. When the names in signatures are followed each by an explana-

tory term, the full pomt should be placed after the latter; as, — JAMES MARSHALL, President.

JoHn THOMSON,

Trmotay Tompxins, Treasurer.

WILLIAM Park,

RULE

} Committee.

MII.

Names, Titles, and other Words, abbreviated.

The period must be used after every abbreviated word. EXAMPLES.

1. The age of MSS. is, in some instances, known by dates inserted in them. 2. Dr. H. Marsh, F.R.S., &c., Bishop of Peterborough; b. 1757, d. 1839. 8. The Plays of Wm. Shakspeare are sometimes printed from the text of Geo.

Stevens, Esq., and Edw. Malone, Esq. REMARKS.

a. When an abbreviated word ends a sentence, only one period is used to show the omission of the letters, and the termination of the sentence; but any other point required by the construction should be inserted after the period, as exemplified above in the abbrevia-

tions “ F.R.S., &c.,”” and the “ Esq.’’ which appears after the name

of George Stevens.

In such lists of words, however, as contain

many abbreviations, the period only may be used, if no obscurity,

or doubtfulness of meaning, would be produced by the omission of the grammatical point. — See p. 151, Remark ec.

p. 162

WORDS ABBREVIATED.

149

period is omitted after an b. In books printed at Edinburgh, theletter ; as, “ Dr Combe; Mr

the last abbreviated word which retains not seem to be a sufficient reason for Buckingham.” But this does. usage al gener from ting devia rophe to indicate an ellipsis ofs —¢. Some printers use the apostare fully pronounced; as, “ Cha’s which words intermediate letters in never be resorted to, except shoul Wm,’ —astyle of pointing that al dwords , and where saving of in abbreviations of long and unusu

ns of figure-work. space is essential, as in headings to colum age, and introduced into langu n foreig a from d d. Words derive ut the period, when witho d printe or n the English, may be writte ctions, and pronounced accordthey are uniformly used as contra interest.” Here, “ cent,’ the ingly; as, “* Two per cent is but small now an English word, and being , centwm Latin the abbreviation of | . essary unnec is pronounced as such, the period 8°, are not, strictly speaké. Such words as Ist, 2dly, 12mo0, 8vo,ent the first letters of each ing, abbreviations; for the figures repres unless any of these used, be not should ore, theref , word. The period al subjects are sever When nce. sente a terms come at the end of of

month or various sizes specified, or when particular daysofofthisa form are perhaps unobjecwords oned, menti often books are it would be better to n, ositio comp of kinds usual tionable; but, in the was given in 1796 army the of and comm write them in full; as, “ The of his age.”

-seventh year to Napoleon Bonaparte, then in the twenty (A, B, C; 4, b, c, &c.) are bet alpha the of s letter the When — f. purpose of reference, it is the for or signs, cant signifi employed as but as ordinary words, ns, viatio abbre as not better to point them, they senten the of n in accordance with the constructios for 1776 werecesG,inF:which therefore occur; as, “The dominical letter the "th of the month. Then, A the first Sunday in January was represent the 7th February}; representing the 7th January, D would 7th May; E, the 7th June; the B, ; April p, the 7th March; G, the "th line, they and G, the 7th July.” When placed at the beginning of a

Rule eads, which, agreeably to Italic are treated as subcaptions oredsideh the in , which and d, perio a by follow be to IL, p. 147, require ; nt work. form, are so used throughout the prese meant so to be pronouncedd, g. Proper names, when shorteofneda and sentencebe, written or printethe should not, except at the end s tombstone were inscribed poet’ the “On as, ; with a full point ” on!’ words, ‘ O rare Ben Jons LV. h. Lists of abbreviated words will be given in Appendix, No.

p. 163

150

THE PERIOD.

RULE

IV.

Marks or Figures used instead of Words.

When either marks or Arabic figures are substituted

for words, the period should not be used, except at the end of a sentence; but the full point is inserted before decimals, and between pounds and shillings. EXAMPLES.

1. He borrows $5,000, and agrees to pay interest at 6 per cent per annum. 2. As an illustration of our remarks, see § 2, { 10, notes * and f.

8+9-+7K 18—5+10K6— 2 K2+-54+21=—174

4. £1. 10s. 6d. sterling is equivalent to $6.78, United-States money. REMARKS.

a. Marks and figures are considered as representative signs, not abbreviations.

Hence the propriety of the rule.

6. When figures are put in a tabular or columnar form, periods are not inserted; but, when they occur in regularly constructed sentences or in dates or headings, that point should be used which would be adopted if they were written in words.

RULE

Letters used for Figures or Words.

When numerals are written in characters of the

alphabet, instead of words or Arabic figures, it is usual to insert

periods after them

in all situations;

and,

when employed as dates, to separate by periods the

portions

into which they are divided when audibly

read. EXAMPLES.

1. In proof of his position, the learned divine referred to Gen. vi. 12, 18.

Ps. lxv. 2; lxxviii. 89. Acts ii. 17. 1 Cor. {. 29.

2. In the titlepages of books and in inscriptions, dates are sometimes put in capitals, instead of figures; as, M.DCCC.LV. for 1855.

p. 164

LETTERS FOR FIGURES OR WORDS.

151

REMARKS.

a. A full point is, in the first example, put.after chapters vi., Ixv.

Ixxviii., ii, and i.;and, in the second, after M., DCCC., and LV., — not as being equivalent to the grammatical period, but merely be cause, of all the marks, it is the least offensive to the eye, and has been generally employed in such cases. 6. In referring to the chapters of the Bible, some writers use the

Arabic figures; as, ‘“ Gen. 6. 12, 18,” or “6: 12, 18;°’ putting after them a colon or a period.

But the mode exhibited in the first exam-

ple under the rule is supported by the best usage, and is, we think,

much preferable in its more clearly distinguishing the chapters from the verses.

c. Bible and other references are sometimes made by the insertion

of a comma after the period; as, “ Gen., vi., 12, 18;” “ Vol. i., part iv., sect. ii., § 3.’’

But, though this mode of punctuation is more

accurate than that which omits the comma, it is less simple; and,

because uncouth in its appearance, should not be adopted, unless as in Remark a, it is essential to a clear discerning of the sense. —

See p. 100, second portion of Remark 9.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Assign the reasons gwen in the four preceding Rules and the Remarks for the

punctuation of headings, names of books, abbreviations, marks, figures, and numeral capitals, as they occur in the following sentences : —

What will £100 amount to in 34 years, at 44 per cent per annum, compound interest?

(Rule IV.; and Remark d, under Rule III.)

The train leaves New York at 9 o’clock, A.m., and 44, P.M.;

returning at 10 in the evening.

(Rules IV. and HI.)

But the seasons are not alike in all countries of the same region, for the reasons already given.

See chap. vi. § xii. 7 4, p. 530.

(Rule III.; and Rule V., Remark ec.) Poetical Works.

Mark Akenside. Lond. 1855. 2vols.12mo .. . 4538 (Rule II. and Rem. a; Rule III., last of Rem. a, Rem. e; Rule IV.)

To R. H. Dana, jun., Esq., the well-known author of “ Two Years before the Mast,” the community are greatly indebted.

(Rule III.

and first of Remark a.)

Titus died in the third year of his reign, and the 41st year of his

age, not without suspicion of being poisoned by his brother Domi-

tian, who succeeded him.

(Remark e, under Rule III.)

p. 165

THE PERIOD.

152

Young as he was, the gentleman earned the approbation of his friends, and at length became M.D., F.R.S., F.A.S. (Rule Ill. and first of Remark a.)

Constantine the Great was advanced to the sole dominion of the Roman world, A.D. 325, and soon after openly professed the Chrisof Remark 0.) tian faith. (Rule IIL.; Rule IV., last portion s. Sophists and — Their Lecrurst Il.—The later Literature of the Greek (Rule II. and Remark a.)

Thomas Campbell wrote some beautiful lines on the Scottish king, James IV., who fell at the battle of Flodden. (Rule III.; and Remark a, first portion.)

The sentiments which chivalry inspired had a wonderful influence on manners and conduct during the 12th, 18th, and 14th centuries. (Remark e, under Rule IIL.) ‘Why so crusty, good sir? ”-—“ Zounds! ” cries Will, in a taking, “ Who wouldn’t be crusty with half a year’s baking?”

(Remark g, under Rule IT.)

There are only two common principles on which every work of imagination must more or less proceed, — 1st, On the expression of those feelings which are common to all men of elevated thinking; and, 2d, On those patriotic feelings and associations peculiar to the

people in whose language it is composed, and on whom it is to exert

its nearest and most powerful influence. (Remark e, under Rule III.) InrRopuction. 1. The Early Years of Elizabeth’s Reign; Summary of their

—2. Literary Greatness of the next Eighty Years; Division Literature. into Three Eras. __— Reign oF Eumaseta From 1580.—8. Social Cha4. Minor re. racter of the Time; its Religious Aspect; Effects on Literatu-— Elizabethan Writers; their Literary Importance; the Three Great Names. (Rule II. and Remark 0.)

The following are some of the marble statues, in the Museum of

Naples, which most impressed me:—

Psyche; a fragment, but full of feeling, grace, and beauty; by some,

ascribed to Praxiteles.

A bust of Caracalla, animated and lifelike.

Two equestrian statues of Balbus and his son, found at Herculaneum;

simple, noble, and dignified.

A beautiful bas-relief of Daedalus and Icarus.

A fine head of Alexander.

(Rule I.)

p. 166

153°

CHAPTER IIL. THE GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL POINTS.

Besipes the Comma, the Semicolon, the Colon, and the Period, which are properly regarded as the most essential points in bringing out the sense of a written or printed composition, there are a few other marks, partly grammatical and partly rhetorical, well deserving the attention of those who desire to have their writings, whether of an epistolary or of a more elaborate nature, easily understood : — The Note or INTERROGATION

-«

Oo Died

. The Nore or EXCLAMATION . . The MARKS OF PARENTHESIS... .-

The

DasH.

...

2] | )

—|

In classifying these points as both grammatical and rhetorical, we mean to imply, not that those which have come under consideration afford no facilities in delivery, but that the Marks of Interrogation, Excla-

mation, and Parenthesis, and the Dash, have a more - direct bearing on that art. They are rhetorical, in proportion to the degree in which they exhibit the force and intensity of a style that is rhetorical in its

structure; but they are also grammatical, because they often serve to indicate, in connection with other marks, the nature, construction, and sense of the passages in which they occur.

p. 167

154

Sect.

L— THE NOTES OF INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMATION.

1, The Note or IntzrRRoGATION [ ? ] shows that

a question is denoted by the words to which it is annexed. —

2. The Note or Excuamarion [ !

] indicates pas-

sion or emotion. REMARKS.

a. The. notes of interrogation and exclamation de not mark the

solative pauses of the voice; occupying, as they do, sometimes the place of the comma or the semicolon, and sometimes that of the

colon or the period.

But they are usually put at the end of sen-

tences, and are equivalent to a full point; requiring, therefore, in the majority of instances, the word that follows to begin with a

capital letter, as after the period.

b. In some cases, it is difficult to distinguish the difference between an interrogative and an exclamatory sentence.

As a general

rule, however, it may be observed, that after words in which an answer is implied, or to which one is expected to be given, the note

of interrogation is added; and after those, though apparently denoting inquiry, where no answer is involved or intended, the note of exclamation is the proper and distinctive mark.

If the writer of

such passages has a clear conception of his own meaning, he can be at no loss which of the points should be used; but if the lan-

guage is ambiguous, and requires to be punctuated by a printer or an editor, either of the marks may, under the circumstances, be

regarded as admissible.

c. In treating of the interrogative and exclamative marks, writers on punctuation, laying too much stress on the rhetorical character of these points, are wont to say that they cause an elevation of the

voice. But, though it must be acknowledged that they assist much in the proper delivery of the passages in which they occur, it will

p. 168

INTERROGATORY EXPRESSIONS.

155

not be denied that this results only from a knowledge of a writer’s meaning, and from the kind of phraseology which he employs. That the notes of interrogation and exclamation have far less to

do with the inflections of the voice than is commonly imagined, will

be fully apparent from the following sentences, some of which require a rise, and others a fall, in their pronunciation: “ Shall we in your person crown’ the author of the public calamities, cr shall we destroy’ him?’? —‘* What is the happiness that this world can give’? Can it defend us from disasters’ ?’” —“ Oh that these lips had

language’ |”? —“‘ How mysterious are the ways of Pr ovidence*!”

RULE

Expressions in the Form of Questions.

An interrogative mark is placed at the termination of every question, whether it requires an answer, or, though in its nature assertive, is put, for the sake of emphasis, in an interrogative form. EXAMPLES.

1. Why, for so many a year, has the poet or the philosopher wandered amid the fragments of Athens or of Rome; and paused, with strange and kindling feelings, amid their broken columns, their mouldering temples, their

deserted plains? It is because their day of glory is past. 2. How can he exalt his thoughts to any thing great or noble who only

believes, that, after a short term on the stage of existence, he is to sink into

oblivion, and to lose his consciousness for ever?

REMARKS.

a. Tha first of these passages exemplifies a sentence expressive of direct inquiry; the second, one that is assertive in its meaning, but interrogative in its structure or form.

b. The mark of interrogation should not be used when it is only

affirmed that a question has been asked, and the expression denoting inquiry is put in any other shape than that of a direct question; as, “TI was asked if I would stop for dinner.” If put in the interroga-

tive form, this sentence would be read and punctuated according to the rule: “J was asked, ‘ Will you stop for dinner?’ ”

p. 169

156

THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION.

c. In some instances, however, a question may be assertive in its

form, but interrogative in its sense; as, “ You will stop for dinner?” In order to distinguish a sentence of this kind from one that is affirmative both in form and signification, it is obvious that the note

of interrogation should be employed. d.

It is a common error, both with writers and printers, to

make one interrogative mark represent several successive questions,

which, though connected in sense, are in construction distinct and separate;

and to substitute semicolons or dashes where notes of

interrogation should be used.

In the following passage, therefore,

each question should be distinguished by its appropriate mark, and not by dashes, which are used in the original: “ What is civilization ?

Where is it?

What does it consist in?

Where does it commence? known?

How is it defined?

By what is it excluded?

Where does it end?

By what sign is it

In short, what does it mean?”

e. When, however, the expressions denoting inquiry cannot be separated,.and read alone, without materially injuring the sense, one

mark of interrogation, placed at the end of all the questions, will be sufficient; as, “ Ah! whither now are fled those dreams of greatness; those busy, bustling days; those gay-spent, festive nights; those veering thoughts, lost between good and ill, that shared thy

life?”

Jj. When sentences or expressions which were affirmative when spoken or originally written are quoted by a writer in the form of a

question, the interrogative point should be put after the marks of

quotation [“ ”’?], and not before them; as, — “The passing crowd” is a phrase coined in the spirit of indifference. Yet, to a man of what Plato calls ‘‘ universal sympathies,’? and even to the plain, ordinary denizens of this world, what can be more interesting than

“the passing crowd???

Bat, for the sake of neatness, any of the four grammatical points, when required, should be put before the quotation-marks, as they are not likely to give a false meaning to the words cited. g- The interrogative mark should be inserted immediately after a question which formally introduces a remark or a quotation; as,

“Who will not cherish the sentiment contained in the following words of Washington? ‘The nation which indulges towards another an habitual hatred or an habitual fondness is, in some degree, a slave.

It is a slave to its animosity or to its affection, either of which is sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interest.’ ”

p. 170

INTERROGATORY EXPRESSIONS.

157

ORAL EXERCISES.

After mentioning the distinctive uses of the notes of interrogation and exclamation, say why interrogative marks are inserted in these sentences : —

Are there not seasons of spring in the moral world? and is not

the present age one of them?

“Who can look only at the muscles of the hand, and doubt that

? man was made to work

The past, the mighty past, the parent of the present, — where is

it?

What is it?

Are the palaces of kings to be regarded with more interest than the humbler roofs that shelter millions of human beings? If a wicked man could be happy, who might have been so happy as Haman?

Who would tear asunder the best affections of the heart, the noblest instincts of our nature? Have you more liberty allowed you to wound your neighbor's character than you have to shed his blood?

A gandy verbosity is always eloquence in the opinion of him that writes it; but what is the effect on the reader? Bion, seeing @ person who was tearing the hair of his head for sor-

row, said, “ Does this man think that baldness is a remedy for grief?” Is the celestial fire which glowed in their hearts for ever quenched,

and nought but ashes left to mingle with the earth, and be blown around the world?

You say you will repent in some future period of time; but are you sure of arriving at that period of time? Have you one hour in your hand? Have you one minute at your disposal ? What but the ever-living power of literature and religion preserved the light of civilization, and the intellectual stores of the past, undiminished in Greece, during the long and dreary ages of the decline and downfall of the Roman empire?

Who shall sunder me from such men as Fenelon and Pascal and — from Archbishop Leighton, Jeremy Taylor, and John Borromeo, Howard? Who can rupture the spiritual bond between these men and myself? Do I not hold them dear? Does not their spirit, flowing out through their writings and lives, penetrate my soul? Are

they not a portion of my being? Am I not a different man from what I should have been, had not these and other like spirits acted on mine? And is it in the power of synod or conclave, or of all the ecclesiustical combinations on earth, to part me from them?

p. 171

158

NOTE OF INTERROGATION.

Show how the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 145-6) apply to the punctuation of these sentences : —

“Honest man,” says I, “be so good as to inform me whether I am in the way to Mirlingtou.”’

The question is not what we might actually wish with our present

views, but what with juster views we ought to wish. When a king asked Euclid the mathematician, whether he could not explain his art to him in a more compendious manner, he was answered that there was no royal way to geometry.

“The sun not set yet, Thomas?’? —‘ Not quite, sir.

It blazes

through the trees on the hill yonder,as if their branches were all on

fire.”

The Phoenicians invented letters; but what did they do with

them?

Apply them to the record, the diffusion, transmission, and

preservation of knowledge?

You do not expect me to leave my family, when we are all so

comfortable, and brave the perils of a long passage and sickly climate, for the mere chance of getting gold?

To purchase heaven, has gold the power?

Can gold remove the mortal hour? In life can love be bought with gold?

_ Are friendship’s pleasures to be sold? — No: all that’s worth a wish or thought, Fair virtue gives unbribed, unbought.

Can gray hairs make folly venerable? and is not their period to be reserved for retirement and meditation ? Are the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens above us, mere decorations of the night, or suns and centres of planetary systems ?

Where be your gibes now; your gambols; your songs; your

flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table in a roar? Are you conscious of a like increase in wisdom,—in pure endeavors to make yourself and other men what you and they cught to be?

Greece, indeed, fell; but how did she fall?

Babylon?

Did she fall like

Did she fall “like Lucifer, never to hope again” ?

Ig there any man so swelled by the conceit of his union with the true church, as to stand apart, and say, “I am holier than thou”? What do you say?

What?

I really do not understand you.

so good as to explain yourself again.

Upon my word, I do not.—

Oh! now I know: you mean to tell me it is a cold day. you not say at once, “It is cold to-day ’’ ?

Why did

p. 172

EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS.

159

RULE HU.

Expressions indicating Passion or Emotion.

An exclamative mark is put after expressions denoting an ardent wish, admiration, or any other strong emotion; after interjections, words used as interjections, or clauses containing them; and after terms or expressions in an address, corresponding to the vocative case in Latin, when emphatic.

EXAMPLES.

1. Would that we had maintained our humble state, and continued to live in peace and poverty!

2. How sweet are the slumbers of him who can lie down on his pillow, and review the transactions of every day, without condemning himself! 3. What a fearful handwriting upon the walls that surround the deeds of darkness, duplicity, and sensual crime!

4. Bah! that’s the third umbrella gone since Christmas. What were you to do! Why, let him go home in the rain, to be sure.

5. Away, all ye Caesars and Napoleons! to your own dark and frightful domains of slaughter and misery!

6. Friends, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may hear.

REMARKS.

a. With the exception of the dash, there is probably no point respecting which more vague and inaccurate conceptions are entertained than in regard to the applying of the note of exclamation.

Some writers freely make use of this mark where the sentiments do not contain one iota of emotion, and foist it in on every possible occasion, sometimes in a twofold or a triplicate form; thus vainly trying to hide their lack of pathos or of passion by a bristling array of dagger-like points. Others, again, indulge a questionable taste for the same mark, by using it wherever their diction is capable

of conveying emotion to others, but where neither the structure of the expressions employed, nor the tones or inflections of the voice required in reading, will admit of the point. On this subject, we quote the judicious remarks of the Rev. Joseph Robertson, in his “Essay on Punctuation,” third edition, Lond. 1791, p. 113: “It may

p. 173

160

NOTE OF EXCLAMATION.

not be improper to caution the young and inexperienced writer against the immoderate use of exclamations.

Whenever we see a

page in prose profusely interspersed with points of admiration, we generally find it full of unnatural reveries, rant, and bombast.

The

Sacred Writings, and particularly the Psalms, abound with expressions of the warmest piety, and the most elevated descriptions of the Divine nature;.... but our translators, in conformity to the

sober majesty of the original, have seldom introduced the note of admiration.”

6. Generally speaking, only those sentences, clauses, or phrases should have the note of exclamation, which demand a

fervid, pas-

sionate mode of delivery; or which commence with any of the| interjections; with verbs in the imperative mood, adverbs, or prepositions, uttering a stern command or forcibly calling attention; with

the adverbs how, what, unless they denote affirmation or inquiry; or

with the case of address, when usedin a solemn style, or emphasized

by the use of the word 0.

-¢. Between the interjections O and1 oh there exists an esseutial

difference, which is frequently neglected even by some of our best

writers.

The former is properly prefixed to an expression in a

direct address; but the latter ought never to be so employed.

should be used without the mark of exclamation immediately after it; but oh, sometimes with and sometimes without it, according to the construction and sense of the passage in which the word occurs.

The following sentences will illustrate the difference spoken of, and the true mode of punctuation: — 1. The heavens and earth, 0 Lord! proclaim thy boundless power. 2. When, O my countrymen! will you begin to exert your vigor?

3. O blessed spirit, who art freed from earth! rejoice. 4. Oh! nothing is further from my thoughts than to deceive you.

5. Oh, what a glorious part you may act on the theatre of humanity!

6. Oh that all classes of society were both enlightened and virtuous!

In the first three examples, the particle

0 may be justly regarded as

the sign of the case of address, which with its assistance conveys a

feeling of greater emphasis or passion than it usually does without

the sign: the note of exclamation being, in the first instance, put

after the vocative word; in the second, after the vocative phrase; and, in the third, after the vocative clause.

In the last three exam-

ples, the interjection, according to the form adopted (oh) and the

manner in which it is applied, is obviously a different word.

the example numbered 4, the word oh is followed immediately by the

p. 174

EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS.

161

mark denoting exclamation, because it is independent of the next expression, which closes merely with a period, there being nothing characteristic of emotion in the structure of the language used. In the fifth example, the interjection is pointed with a comma, because

this word is grammatically separable from the part of the sentence

beginning with “ what;’? but the note of exclamation, which would have been put after oh if the following expression had been simply affirmative, is placed at the end of all, to show the unity of strong feeling which runs throughout. In the sixth and last example, the interjection is not separated by any point from the conjunction “ that,’ on account of its intimate relation to what follows; and the mark denoting an ardent wish is therefore, as in the preceding example, placed at the close of the sentence.

d. In accordance with the mode of punctuation adopted in the examples illustrating Remark c, it is recommended, that wherever interjections, or any other words indicative of deep emotion or fervid passion, are not meant to be significant in themselves, but to form part of a phrase, clause, or sentence, the mark of exclamation be put

not after each of these words, but only at the end of each expression ; as, * Ah me!’? —“ Alas, my noble boy! that thou shouldst die!’”? —

“ All hail, ye patriots brave!” — “ Rouse, ye Romans! rouse, ye slaves!?? This simple style of pointing seems much preferable to — “ Ah! me!’ “ Alas! my noble boy! that thou shouldst die!’ &.; _is sufficiently expressive for all the purposes of animated composition5

and tends to preclude, what every author must dread, the charge of affectation or of quackery.

e. A remark similar to what is applied to the note of interroga-

tion, p. 156, Remark f, may be made here. When expressions which

were assertive in their original state are quoted, and used in an

exclamatory manner, the point indicating astonishment, irony, or any other feeling, should be put after the marks of quotation; as, —

“Tt is perfectly allowable,” says Lord Suffolk, “to use all the means which God and nature have put into our hands.” .... My lords, we are called upon, as members of this house, a8 men, as Christians, to protest

against such horrible barbarity. “That God and nature have put into our1 hands”?! What ideas of God and nature that noble lord may entertain, know not; but I know that such detestable principles are equally abhorrent

. to religion and humanity. ; the notes extracts such pointing of mode This is evidently the fair of interrogation and exclamation denoting sentiments quite different from those felt by the persons to whom the words quoted belong. .

p. 175

162

NOTE OF EXCLAMATION ORAL EXERCISES.

Why are notes of exclamation inserted in the following examples? —

Alas, poor Yorick!— Alas for the man who has not learned to work We shall be so happy! — Live, live, ye incomparable pair!

Behold the daughter of Innocence! — How peaceful is the grave!

O Freedom! thou art not, as poets dream, a fair young girl. How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood!

All hail, thou noble land, our fathers’ native soil! Praise to the men for whose writings I am the better and wiser!

What! kill thy friend who lent thee money, for asking thee for it! The secret I implore: out with it! speak! discover! utter! Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness!

Down, soothless insulter! I trust not the tale. — Ha, ha, ha! Charge, Chester, charge! on, Stanley, on! — Out, out, Lucetta! Oh the great deep of suffering in every human breast!

How often, in an instant, doth a hand unseen shift the scene of the world! — Alas! those happy days are gone.

When we pass from the living world to the dead, what a sad pic-

ture do we behold!

Oh the grave! the grave! Happy were it for us, did we constantly view the great Creator and Preserver of all continually manifesting himselfin his works! May the sun, in his course, visit no land more free, more happy,

more lovely, than this our own country!

What mighty and remote revolutions hath the human mind pre-

dicted by observing the present positions of the heavenly bodies!

How pleasant will it be to mark the soul thus moving forward in

the brightness of its course!

Tremble, O man! whosoever thou art, who art conscious to thy-

self of unrepented sins.

Peace of mind thou shalt never enjoy. What a multitude of that living host, now glorious in the blaze of

arms and burning with desires of conquest, will fall and perish!

On you and on your children be the peril of the innocent blood

which shall be shed this day!

1 know not what course others may take; but, as for me, give me

liberty, or give me death!

What noble institutions! what a comprehensive policy! what wise

equalization of every political advantage!

How beautiful is all this visible world! how beautiful in its action and itself! — The will of God be done!

p. 176

QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.

168

Shiw how the Remarks (pp. 160-61) apply to the punctuation of the following sentences : —

O Providence! how many poor insects of thine are exposed to be tredden to death in each path! . This, O men of Athens! my duty prompted me to represent to you on this occasion.

O sacred, wise, and wisdom-giving plant, mother of science! now

I feel thy power within me.

O thou who future things canst represent as present, heavenly instructor! I revive at this last sight; assured that man shall live. Oh! I could be bounded in a nutshell, and count myself a king of infinite space, were it not that I have had bad dreams. Oh! you are wounded, my lord. — Oh! many a dream was in the ship an hour before her death.

Oh, how seldom has a pang shot through our hearts at the sight

of our ruined fellow-creatures!

Oh, bloodiest picture in the book of time! Sarmatia fell, unwept,

without a crime.

Oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away

their brains!

Oh the insupportable anguish of reflecting that they died of hunger, when there was bread enough and to spare! Alas for his poor family! — Alas that folly and falsehood should be so hard to grapple with! Daughter of Faith, awake! arise! illume the dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb!

Alas, poor creature! I will soon revenge this cruelty upon the

author of it.

Ugh! I Jook forward with dread for to-morrow. — Up, comrades,

up!— Away with him to prison!

Fie, fie, fio! pah, pah!

Give me an ounce of civet, good apothe-—

cary, to sweeten my imagination: there’s money for thee. Ah the laborious indolence of him who has nothing to do! the preying weariness, the stagnant ennui, of him who has nothing to obtain! But hail, ye mighty masters of the lay, Nature’s true sons, the friends of man and truth!

How exceedingly prepossessing must have been the appearance of this young man, which made an impression upon Jesus so strong

and evident as to cause it to be remarked that “ Jesus loved him’!

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164

INTERROGATIVE AND EXCLAMATIVE MARKS. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Let notes of interrogation and exclamation be inserted in the following sentences, agreeably to the principles laid down in the two preceding Rules, and the

Remarks under them (pp. 155-161): —

Peace to their manes

May the turf lie lightly on their breast,

and the verdure over their grave be as perpetual as their memories

(Rule IT.)

Is he who triumphed in the hope of immortality inferior to the

worm, his companion in the tomb night of the grave

Will light never rise on the long

(Rule I.)

What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite in faculties in form and moving how express and admirable in action how like an angel in apprehension how like a god

(Rule IL.)

Triptolemus asked Mordaunt, with a voice which faltered with apprehension, whether he thought there was any danger. (Remark 6, under Rule I.)

_ How many bright eyes grow dim how many soft cheeks grow pale how many lively forms fade away into the tomb—and none can tell the cause that blighted their happiness. (Rule II.) You do not think, I hope, that I will join in conversation with such a man, or that I will so far betray my character as to give countenance to such desperate proceedings

(Remark c, under Rule I.)

How happy the station which every minute furnishes opportuniies of doing good to thousands how dangerous that which every moment exposes to the injury of millions

(Rule II.)

Where is the man who is entitled to set a boundary to himself in the path of righteousness, saying, “ Hitherto shall I go, but no (Rule I. and Remark /.)

further”

Wherever an agonizing people shall perish, in a generous convulsion, for want of a valiant arm and a fearless heart, they will cry, in

the last accents of despair, “Oh for a Washington, an Adams, a (Rule II. and Remark c.)

Jefferson”

What words can declare the immeasurable worth of books what rhetoric set forth the importance of that great invention which

diffused them over the whole earth to glad its myriads of minds (Rule I. and Remark d.)

By what inconceivable perversion -of taste and of labor has he

framed, for the sentiments of his religion, a mode of expression se uncongenial with the eloquence of his country, and so adapted to dis-

sociate them from all connection with that eloquence

(Rule 1.)

p. 178

QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.

165

It is good to make earth and ocean, winds and flames, sun and stars, tributary to our present well-being: how much better to make them minister to our spiritual wants, teachers of heavenly truth, guides to a more glorious Being than themselves, bonds of union between man and his Maker (Rule II.) Why is it that the names of Howard and Thornton and Clarkson

and Wilberforce will be held in everlasting remembrance Is it not

chiefly on account of their goodness, their Christian philanthropy, the overflowing and inexhaustible benevolence of their great minds (Rule I. and Remark e.)

Victims of persecution how wide an empire acknowledges the sway of your principles Apostles of liberty what millions attest

the authenticity of your mission Meek champions of truth no stain of private interest or of innocent blood is on the spotless garments of

your renown.

(Rule II.)

Whither shall I turn

Wretch that I am to what place shall I

petake myself Shall I go to the capitol —alas it is overflowed with

yet there I bemy brother’s blood; or shall I retire to my house— hold my mother plunged in misery, weeping and despairing. (Rules I. and IT.)

Whatis it onlyin dreams that beauty and loveliness have beamed

on me from the human countenance; that I have heard tones of kindness which have thrilled through my heart; that I have found

sympathy in suffering, and a sacred joy in friendship Are all the great and good men of past ages only dreams (Rule II.; Rule L and Remark e.)

Does not the mind, after all, spread its own hue over all the scenes of life Does not the cheerful man make a cheerful world Does not the sorrowing man make a gloomy world

Does not every

mind make its own world Does it not—as if indeed a portion of the Deity were imparted to it— does it not almost create the scene around it

(Rule I. and Remark d.)

Why has God placed man amidst this boundless theatre, revealed

around him this endless creation, touched his heart with the love of beauty, and given him this delightful and awful interest in all that meets his eye, if he is merely a creature of the earth, soon to shut his eyes on these majestic scenes, and to be buried for ever in a narrow grave Does this love of the infinite, this attachment to the universe, seem suitable to so frail a nature

Do they not suggest

the idea of a being who belongs to the universe, and whois ‘to fill an

ever. widening sphere

(Rule I.)

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166

INTERROGATIVE AND EXCLAMATIVE MARKS.

O Pascal thou wert pure in heart in this world, and now thou art in full sight of God.

O John Milton thou art among the angels and

the seraphs that were once thy glorious song; and this world is dear to them for what thou thyself wert in it.

Oh, how sublimely dost

thou move in heaven, the love of saints and heroes, and spirits

multitudinous

(Rule II. and Remark c.)

O Nature how in every charm supreme

(Rule I.)

Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath

Can honor’s voice provoke the silent dust,

Or flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death

(Rule I.)

A crippled and suffering child, looked at from without, seems the

heaviest of domestic afflictions.

Yet, once confided to our care,

what an object of tender interest it becomes affections hover over it

' woven round it

What gentle and holy

What a web of soft and fostering duty is

It gives new beauty and value to life.

We would

fain keep it with us for ever. What a void is left when it is removed by the hand of death

(Rule I.)

What must sound reason pronounce of a mind, which, in the train

of millions of thoughts, has wandered to all things under the sun, to all the permanent objects or vanishing appearances in the creation, but never fixed its thought on the Supreme Reality; never

approached, like Moses, to “see this great sight”

(Remark J,

under Rule IL.)

Oh the littleness of man’s heart, capable of loving only by units and in successive emotions, and therefore contracting the infinite

heart of God to the narrowness of his own

Oh the meanness of

man’s thoughts, when he takes the foot-rule, by which he measures his earthly dwelling, as his base-line of triangulation for measuring the amplitude of the heavenly temple

(Rule II., Remark ce.)

Who is the man whom you select from the records of time as the

object jof your special admiration

Is it he who lived to indulge

himself; whose current of life flowed most equably and pleasurably; whose desires were crowned most liberally with means of gratification; whose table was most luxuriantly spread; and whom fortune

made the envy of his neighborhood by the fulness of her gifts

Were

such the men to whom monuments have been reared, and whose

memories, freshened with tears of joy and reverence, grow and flourish and spread through every age

mark e; Rule II., Remark d.)

Oh, no

(Rule I. and Re-

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167

Sect. I.— MARKS OF PARENTHESIS.

Marks

PARENTHESIS

consist of two

curved

lines ( ), which serve to indicate that an expression

is inserted in the body of a sentence, with which it has no connection in sense or in construction. REMARKS.

a. These two curves are sometimes called parentheses, or a paren-

thesis, — the same word that indicates the kind of phrase or clause which they enclose.

But, as this

designation tends to produce

ambiguity or confusion of ideas, it would be better to name. them

‘marks of parenthesis,’? and to restrict the term “ parenthesis’ to

signify, what it properly means, those words which are put between such portions of a sentence as are intimately connected in sense and

in construction. 6. Marks of parenthesis were once used in greater abundance than they are at the present day; many phrases and clauses now pointed with commas having been formerly enclosed by curved lines.

This

probably arose from the fact, that the older writers were more accustomed to an involved style of composition, which could not be read without the frequent use of parenthetical marks; whereas modern

authors, many of them with less beauty and justness of sentiment,

are wont to adopt a freer and an uncomplicated mode of writing. Hence, the eye being but little habituated to marks of parenthesis, there is a growing tendency to dispense with them, even when the

structure of a sentence demands their insertion. Those intermediate expressions, indeed, which are less harsh or abrupt, or do not hinder

the flow of the sentence into which they are thrown, are more easily read by means of commas than with the help of marks of parenthesis; but, on the other hand, it is evident, that a whole sentence, or a part of a sentence, introduced into the body of another, with which

it does not harmonize, is more clearly distinguished, and that the eye

is better able to connect the main portions, when the proper parenthetical marks are introduced. — See pp. 64, 65.

p. 181

MARKS OF PARENTUESIS.

168

RULE.

Words thrown obliquely into the Body of a Sentence.

The marks of parenthesis enclose only those words which break the unity of the sentence into which they are thrown, and which may therefore be omitted without injury to its sense or its construction. EXAMPLES. (see Dr. Pocock, not his discourses, but 1. The Egyptian style of architecture his prints) was apparently the mother of the Greek.

¥, If we exercise right principles (and we cannot have them unless we exercise them), they must be perpetually on the increase. REMARKS.

a. If a point would not be required between those parts of a

sentence in which a parenthesis occurs, none should be used along with the parenthetical marks; as, “ Are you still (I fear you are) far

from being comfortably settled?’ Here these marks are unaccompanied by any point, because, in its simple state, the sentence would be without it; as, “ Are you still far from being comfortably settled?”

6. But, when a comma or any other point is necessary where the incidental clause is thrown in, it should be placed after the last mark of parenthesis; as, ‘‘ Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the proud man himself), is the most ordinary spring of action among men.” Some writers would punctuate this and similar sentences with the same point before each of the marks; as, ** Left now to himself, (malice could not wish him a worse adviser,) he resolves on a desperate project.” But the former mode of pointing is preferable, as it connects the parenthesis more closely with the preceding part of the sentence, to which it is usually most related. c. Sometimes the parenthetical portion of a sentence is designed to express either inquiry or an emotion of wonder, astonishment, delight, &c., when the main passage is in its nature affirmative. In cases of this kind, the point required, if there were no parenthesis,

is to be inserted before the first mark under consideration, and that which belongs to the enclosed portion before the second; as, “ While

p. 182

WORDS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE.

169

the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow-men, (and why should he not desire it?) he disdains to receive their good-will by dishonorable means.”

d. On the other hand, the parenthesis is sometimes explanatory or affirmative; and the portion of the sentence with which it is connected, interrogative. Thus: “ The righteousness which is of faith speaketh on this wise: Say not in thine heart, Who shall ascend . into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down from above;) or, Who shall descend into the deep? (that is, to bring up Christ again from the dead.) But what saith it?’? In this passage, the points used with the marks of parenthesis are applied differently from those inserted in the example illustrating Remark c; but the principle is the same.

e. Before the first parenthetical mark, however, no point should be used, if not required in case the parenthetical words were omitted; as, “The rocks (hard-hearted varlets!) melted not. into tears, nor did the trees hang their heads in silent sorrow.”

f. Occasionally, the parenthesis is so little connected with the

portion that follows it, that a period is required before the last mark,

though no point whatever, or only a comma, is necessary to unite — the parts before and after the parenthesis; as,

The path to bliss abounds with many a snare: Learning is one, and wit, however rare.

The Frenchman, first in literary fame,

(Mention him, if you please. Voltaire? — The same.) With spirit, genius, eloquence, supplied,

Lived long, wrote much, laughed heartily, and died.

g. Though, strictly speaking, a parenthesis is an interruption of the sense of a passage, yet the marks indicating it may sometimes be used to enclose a word, phrase, or clause, placed at the end of a sentence; as, “ The next night we were introduced at the Prince ‘of Craon’s assembly (he has the chief power in the grand duke’s absence). The princess,” &c. But such a mode of punctuation is seldom needed in a style characterized either by unity or elegance. h. In the Scriptures, particularly in the Letters of the Apostle Paul, parentheses are found consisting of distinct sentences, which require to be separated by full points from the context, as in the following example: “ Brethren, be followers together of me, and mark them who walk so as ye have us for an ensample. (For many walk, of whom I have told you often, and now tell you even weeping, that they are the enemies of the cross of Christ; whose end is destruc-

p. 183

170

MARKS OF PARENTHESIS.

tion, whose god is their belly, and whose glory is in their shame; who mind earthly things.)

For our conversation is in heaven;

from

whence also we look for the Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ.” 7. In reports of speeches, where a particular reference is sometimes made either to the present or a former speaker, or where the

sense of the auditors is expressed by approbation or disapprobation, it is usual to enclose the inserted words within marks of parenthesis;

as, “ The lucid exposition which has been made of the object of the

meeting by the Right Reverend Bishop (M‘Ilvaine) lightens the task of recommending it to an audience like this.

I do not know but I

should act more advisedly to leave his cogent and persuasive statement to produce its natural effect, without any attempt on my part

to enforce it. j.

(No.)’

Some writers would

put within parenthetical marks such

words as are thrown into sentences to correct grammatical errors; as, ‘I am now as well as when you was (were) here.”

But, as will

be shown hereafter, it is better to use brackets, that the language introduced may be clearly distinguished from the original; as (to

take the same example), “I am now as well as when you was [were] here.”

k. Sometimes marks of parenthesis are used to enclose an expression standing apart from the context, and added by way of

explanation, or in reference to some other passage.

Examples

of this kind may be seen in the “ Exercises to be written,’ which

occur in the present treatise.

The same marks are also used, par-

ticularly in dictionaries and in didactic and

scientific works,. to

enclose the Arabic figures or the letters of the alphabet, when enumerating definitions of words, or subjects treated of; as, “(A.) The unlawfulness of suicide appears from the following considerations: (1.)

Suicide is unlawful on account of its general consequences.

(2.) Because it is the duty of the self-murderer to live in the world, and be useful in it.

(8.) Because he deprives himself of all further

opportunity to prepare for happiness in a future state.’?

But, unless

it is necessary to distinguish the letters or figures from the simpler modes of specification, the marks of parenthesis are better omitted. 1. When a parenthetical expression is short, or coincides with the rest of the sentence, the marks of parenthesis may be omitted, and

commas used instead; as, “‘ Every star, if we may judge by analogy, is a sun to a system of planets.”

The intervening words says J, says

he, and others of a similar character, should all be written only with commas. — See p. 65, Remark c.

p. 184

WORDS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE.

171

ORAL EXERCISE.

Show how the Rule and the Remarks apply to the punctuation of these sentences : —

I have seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult with an air of pity.

The Tyrians were the first (if we may believe what is told us by writers of high antiquity) who learned the art of navigation. Pleasure (whene’er she sings, at least) ’s a siren, That lures, to flay alive, the young beginner.

The profound learning and philosophical researches of Sir Wiliam Jones (he was master of twenty-eight languages) were the wonder and admiration of his contemporaries.

Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know): Virtue alone is happiness below.

Whether writing prose or verse (for a portion of the work is in prose), the author knows both what to blot, and when to stop. Do we, then (for this one question covers the whole ground of this subject), —do we observe the strict conditions of our vast and unsurpassably momentous work?

The most remote country, towards the East, of which the Greeks had any definite knowledge (and their acquaintance with it was, at

the best, extremely imperfect), was India.

While they wish to please, (and why should they not wish it?)

they disdain dishonorable means.

I am so ill at present, (an illness of my own. procuring last night: who is perfect?) that nothing but your very great kindness could make me write.

She had managed this matter so well, (oh, how artful a woman.

she was!) that my father’s heart was gone before I suspected it was in danger.

Perhaps (for who can guess the effects of chance ?) Here Hunt may box, or Mahomet may dance.

Consider (and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts !)

the fatal consequences of a wicked life. Edward, lo! to sudden fate

(Weave we the woof: the thread is spun.) Half of thy heart we consecrate.

(The web is wove; the work is done.)

p. 185

172

MARKS OF PARENTHESIS.

The air was mild as summer, all corn was off the ground, and the sky-larks were singing aloud (by the way, I saw not one at Keswick, perhaps because the place abounds in birds of prey).

She was one

Fit for the model of a statuary

(A race of mere impostors when all’s done: I’ve seen much finer women, ripe and real, Than all the nonsense of their stone ideal).

A certain man was sick, named Lazarus, of Bethany, the town of Mary and her sister Martha. (It was that Mary who anointed

the Lord with ointment, and wiped his feet with her hair, whose.

brother Lazarus was sick.)

Therefore his sisters sent unto him, saying, Lord, behold, he whom thou lovest is sick. From an original and infinitely more lofty and intellectual state of existence, there remains to man, according to the philosophy of Plato, a dark remembrance of divinity and perfection.

Yet, in the mere outside of nature’s works, if I may so express myself, there is a splendor and a magnificence to which even untu-

tored minds cannot attend without great delight.

“ You say,” said the judge, “ that the bag you lost had a hundred | and ten dollars in it? ’? —“ Yes, sir.” —“ Then,” replied the judge,

“this cannot be your bag, as it contained but a hundred dollars.”

EXERCISE TO BE

WRITTEN.

Introduce the marks of parenthesis into their respective

places: —

Not a few are the incitements of the working classes would they. were greater! to the accumulation of property, and even to the

investment of land.

(Remark e.)

The finest images which Joseph Hall conjures up and many of them are wonderfully fine never displace the great truths for the sake of which they are admitted. (Remark a.) There is nothing that we call a good which may not be converted

into a curse that is, nothing that is providential or external, and not

of the soul; nor is there an evil of that nature which is not tho(Remark 6.)

roughly a good.

There is a power have you not felt it? in the presence, conversation, and example of a man of strong principle and magnanimity, tu

lift us, at least for the moment, from our vulgar and tame habits of thought, and to kindle some generous aspirations after the excellence which we were made to attain. (Remarks e, b)

p. 186

WORDS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE.

173

Under God, and by those spiritual aids which are ever vouchsafed in exact proportion to our endeavors to obtain them, how gracious and glorious is this truth! we are morally and religiously, as well as intellectually, the makers of ourselves.

(Remark c.)

Sir, I hope the d¢g gentleman that has just sat down Mr. Francis

Archer will do me the justice to believe, that, as I receive little

satisfaction from being offended, so I am not sedulous to find out

cause for offence.

Applause.

(Remark i.)

I mention these instances, not to undervalue science it would be

folly to attempt that; for science, when true to its name, is true knowledge, but to show that its name is sometimes wrongfully assumed, and that its professors, when not guided by humility, may prove but misleading counsellors. (Remark 0.) And he said unto them that stood by, Take from him the pound, and give it to him that hath ten pounds. And they said unto him, Lord, he hath ten pounds.

For I say unto you, that unto every one

who hath shall be given; and from him that hath not, even that

which he hath shall be taken away from him. (Remarks J, h.) “ Young master was alive last Whitsuntide,” said the coachman. ‘Whitsuntide! alas!’’ cried Trim,extending his right arm, and falling instantly into the same attitude in which he read the sermon, “ what is Whitsuntide, Jonathan”’ for that was the coachman’s name, “ or Shrovetide, or any other tide or time, to this?’? (Remark 2.) No lesson of a practical kind and all lessons ought to be practical requires to be so often repeated as that which enjoins upon the mind a state of passivity; for what an electrical thing is it! How does it dart forth after this and that, flitting from sweet to sweet for it never willingly tastes of bitter things, and “feeding itself without fear’?! . (Remarks a, 6.)

Inquiring the road to Mirlington, I addressed him by the name of The fellow whether to show his wit before his mistress, or whether he was displeased with my familiarity, I cannot tell Honesty.

directed me to follow a part of my face which, I was well assured. could be no guide to me, and that other parts would follow of consequence. (Remarks a, 6.)

Socrates has often expressly said, that he considered human life in general and without doubt the state of the world in his day must

have eminently tended to make him so consider it in the light of an imprisonment of the soul, or of a malady under which the nobler spirit is condemned to linger, until it be set free and purified by the healing touch of death.

(Remark a.)

p. 187

174

Sect. TT.— THE DASH.

The Dasu [ — ] is a straight horizontal line, used for the purposes specified in the following rules. REMARKS.

a. Notwithstanding the advantages resulting from the proper

use of the dash, the most indistinct conceptions have been formed in

regard to its nature and its applications.

Many authors, some of them of high standing in the literary world, as well as a majority of letter-writers, are wont to employ this mark so indiscrimina tely

as to prove that they are acquainted neither with its uses, nor with those of the other points whose places it is made to supply. Some use it instead of a comma; others, instead of a semicolon; not a few, where the colon is required; and a host, between every sentence

and after every paragraph. Others go even further, by introducing it between the most commonplace words and phrases, apparently to

apprise the reader, through the medium of his eye, what perhaps he could not discover by his judgment, that the composition before him

is distinguished for brilliance of diction, tenderness of sentiment, or force of thought. But surely the unnecessary profusion of straight

lines, particularly on a printed page, is offensive to good taste, is an index of the dasher’s profound ignorance of the art of punctuation, and, so far from helping to bring out the sense of an author, is better adapted for turning into nonsense some of his finest passages.

6. From these abuses in the application of the dash, some writers have strongly questioned its utility in any way as a sentential mark.

So long, however, as modes of thought are different, and the style of composition corresponds with the peculiarities of an author's mind, so long will it be necessary occasionally to use the dash.

The majestic simplicity of Scripture language may dispense with the

use of this mark; but the affected and abrupt style of a Sterne, the broken and natural colloquialisms of a Shakspeare, the diffusive

eloquence of a

Chalmers, and

the

parenthetical inversions of a

Bentham or a Brougham, will scarcely admit of being pointed only

with the more common and grammatical stops.

p. 188

BROKEN AND EPIGRAMMATIC SENTENCES.

1798

RULE

Broken and Epigrammatie Sentences.

The dash is used where a sentence breaks off ab-

ruptly, and the subject is changed ; where the sense is

suspended, and is continued after a short interruption ; where a significant or long pause is required; and where there is an unexpected or epigrammatic turn in

the sentiment.

EXAMPLES.

1. Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band?

Was there

— but I scorn to boast. ever

— who can look unmoved into that ‘“ well unde2. Then the eye of a child filed,” in which heaven itself seems to be reflected?

8. You have given the command to a person of illustrious birth, of ancient — of no experience. family, of innumerable statues, but

4, HERE LIES THE GREAT — False marble! where? lies here.

Nothing but sordid dust .

REMARKS.

a. In the preceding examples, no grammatical point is used with. the dash, because, in the first two and the last one, none would seem to be required if the sentences broken off had been finished; and because, in the third, the word “ but,” before the mark showing the suspensive pause, is intimately connected in sense with the phrase that follows it. But if the parts of a sentence, between which the pause of suspension is to be made, are susceptible of being grammatically divided, their proper point should be inserted before the dash; as, “‘ He sometimes counsel takes, — and sometimes snuff.” b. Passages of the following kind, in which an unfinished question is taken up immediately afterwards in an alternate form, may be brought under the operation of the present rule; the dash, with a comma before it, being placed after the commencing portion of the sentence: “ Who could best describe to you a country, —he who had travelled its entire surface, or he who had just landed on its

shores? Who could best breathe into you the spint of Christian love, —he who had scarcely learned to control his own passions, or

Jesus of Nazareth?”

p. 189

176

THE DASH. ORAL EXERCISE.

Why are dashes inserted in the following sentences ? —-

Men will wrangle for religion, write for it, fight for it, any thing but — live for it.

Greece, Carthage, Rome, — where are they? The pages of his-

tory — howis it that they are so dark and sad?

If you will give me your attention, I will show you — but stop !{ Y do not know that you wish to see. Leonidas, Cato, Phocion, Tell,—oné peculiarity marks them all: they dared and suffered for their native land.

If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh, how fallen! how degraded!

The good woman was allowed by everybody, except her husband, to be a sweet-tempered lady — when not in liquor.

I take — eh! oh! —as much exercise — eh! —as I can, Madam Gout.

You know my sedentary state.

Hast thou — but how shall I ask a question which must bring

tears into so many eyes?

When Jesus saw his mother, and the disciple standing by whom he loved, he saith unto his mother, Woman, — behold — thy son! Then saith he to the disciple, Behold — thy mother!

When the poor victims were bayoneted, clinging round the knees of the soldiers, would my friend — but I cannot pursue the strain of my interrogation.

“Lord Cardinal! if thou think’st on heaven’s bliss, Hold up thy hand; make signal of that hope.”? — He dies, and makes no sign.

Approaching the head of the bed, where my poor young com-

panion, with throat uncovered, was lying, with one hand the monster ‘grasped his knife, and with the other — ah, cousin! — with the other

he seized — a ham. Good people all, with one accord, Lament for Madam Blaize, Who never wanted a good word — From those who spoke her praise.

A “ Hamlet,’’ a “ Paradise Lost,’? and a St. Peter’s Church, — are they not, each after its kind, creations to which nothing can be

added, and from which nothing can be taken away, without disturb-

ance of their serene, absolute completeness ?

p. 190

BROKEN AND EPIGRAMMATIC, SENTENCES.

177

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

In the following sentences, insert dashes wherever necessary : —

“I forgot my’? Thomas.

“ Your portmanteau?” hastily interrupted

‘The same.”

Horror burst the bands of sleep; but my feelings words are too

weak, too powerless, to express them.

~ ‘To reward men according to their worth alas! the perfection of

this, we know, amounts to the millennium.

“ Please your honor,” quoth Trim, “ the Inquisition is the vilest” “ Prithee, spare thy description, Trim. I hate the very name of it,”

said my father.

Frankness, suavity, tenderness, benevolence, breathed through their exercise. And his family But he is gone: that noble heart

beats no more. Thou dost not mean

No, no: thou wouldst not have me make A trial of my skill upon my child!

What beside a few mouldering and brittle ruins, which time is imperceptibly touching down into dust, what, beside these, remains of the glory, the grandeur, the intelligence, the supremacy, of the | - Grecian republics, or the empire of Rome? In thirty years the western breeze had not fanned his blood: he had seen no sun, no moon, in all that time; nor had the voice of friend or kinsman breathed through his lattice. His children but here my heart began to bleed, and I was forced to go on with another part of the portrait.

The people lifted up their voices, and blessed the good St. NichoJas; and, from that time forth, the sage Van Kortland was held in more honor than ever for his great talent at dreaming, and was pronounced a most useful citizen and a right good man when he was asleep.

I now solemnly declare, that, so far as personal happiness is concerned, I would infinitely prefer to pass my life as a member of the par, in the practice of my profession, according to the ability which God has given me, to that life which I have led, and in which I have held places of high trust, honor, respectability, and obloquy. At church, in silks and satins new, With hoop of monstrous size, She never slumbered in her pew But when she shut her eyes. 12

p. 191

178

THE DASH.

RULE

IL.

A Concluding Clause on which other Expressions depend. A dash should be used after several words or expressions, when these constitute a nominative which

is broken off, and resumed in a new form; and after

a long member, or a series of phrases or clauses, when they lead to an important conclusion. EXAMPLES.

1. That patriotism which, catching its inspirations from the immortal

God, and leaving at an immeasurable distance below all lesser, grovelling, personal interests and feelings, animates and prompts to deeds of self-sacrifice, of valor, of devotion, and of death itself, — that is public virtue; that

is the noblest, the sublimest, of all public virtues.

2. When ambition practises the monstrous doctrine of millions made for individuals, their playthings, to be demolished at their caprice;

sporting

wantonly with the rights, the peace, the comforts, the existence, of nations,

as if their intoxicated pride would, if possible, make God’s earth itself their football, —is not the good man indignant?

3. The infinity of worlds, and the narrow spot of carth which we call our country or our home; the eternity of ages, and the few hours of life; the

almighty power of God, and human nothingness, —it is impossible to think

of these in succession, without a feeling like that which is produced by the

sublimest eloquence. REMARKS.

a. Instead of a comma and a dash, which are used in these examples immediately before the finishing clause of the sentence, some

writers and printers would insert a semicolon or a colon; but the punctuation adopted above seems to exhibit the construction and sense to more advantage, and to be more in harmony with the

rhetorical character of such passages.

On the other hand, many would put dashes, in the third The

example, instead of the semicolons which we have introduced.

mode of punctuation here exhibited seems to be account of its

greater definiteness;

showing, as

preferable, on does, by the

insertion, between the particulars of the compound series, of a point

different from that used before the last portion of the sentence, both the similarities.and the distinction which exist between its various

parts. — See p. 120, Rule; p. 121, c, e, fZ

p. 192

A CONCLUDING CLAUSE.

179

ORAL EXERCISE.

State why dashes are inserted in the following sentences.—

To pull down the false and to build up the true, and to uphold

what there is of true in the old, — let this be our endeavor.

At school and at college, the great vision of Rome broods over the mind with a power which is never suspended or disputed: her great men, her beautiful legends, her history, the height to which she rose, and the depth to which she fell, — these make up one-half of a student’s ideal world.

The noble indignation with which Emmett repelled the charge of treason against his country, the eloquent vindication of his name, and his pathetic appeal to posterity, in the hopeless hour of condemnation, —all these entered deeply into every generous bosom; and even his enemies lamented the stern policy that dictated his exe cution.

That gush of human sympathy which brought tears into Charles Lamb’s eyes, when he mingled in the living tide which pours through the streets of London, and he felt his heart beat responsive to the — what was it but warm pulse of joy as it throbbed past him, the vivid consciousness of God; the breath of the Father, softening the bosom over which it swept, and filling it with his own merciful tenderness towards the great family of man?

The grasp of a child’s little hand around one of our fingers; its mighty little crow, when excited by the playfulness of its nurse; its manful spring upon the little woolpack legs that refuse to bear its weight, —are all traits of more or less pleasantness. Every step in the attainment of physical power; every new trait of intelligence, as they one by one arise in the infantine intellect, like the glory — is hailed with a heartof night, starting star by star into the sky, burst of rapture and surprise, as if we had never known any thing go clever or so captivating before.

The affections which spread beyond ourselves, and stretch far into futurity; the workings of mighty passions, which seem to arm the soul with an almost superhuman energy; the innocent and irrepressible joy of infancy; the bloom and buoyancy and dazzling hopes of youth; the throbbings of the heart, when it first wakes to love, and dreams of a happiness too vast for earth; woman, with her beauty and grace and gentleness, and fulness of feeling, and

depth of affection, and blushes of purity, and the tones and looks which only a mother’s heart can inspire, — these are all poetical.

p. 193

180

THE DASH.

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

Let dashes be introduced into these sentences, in accordance with the Rule:

The collision of mind with mind; the tug and strain of intellectual wrestling; the tension of every mental fibre, as the student reaches forth to take hold of the topmost pinnacle of thought; the shout of joy that swells up from gladsome voices, as he stands upon the summit, with error under his feet, these make men.

The modest flower, nestling in the meadow-grass; the happy tree, as it laughs and riots in the wind; the moody cloud, knitting its brow in solemn thought; the river that has been flowing all night

long; the sound of the thirsty earth, as it drinks and relishes the rain, these things are as a fuil hymn when they flow from the melody

of nature, but an empty rhythm when scanned by the finger of art. If we would see the foundations laid broadly and deeply on which the fabric of this country’s liberties shall rest to the remotest generations; if we would see her carry forward the work of political reformation, and rise the bright and morning star of freedom over

a benighted world, let us elevate the intellectual and moral character of every class of our citizens, and especially let us imbue them thoroughly with the principles of the gospel of Jesus Christ.

Above all the fret and tumult of actual existence, above the decrees of earth’s nominal sovereigns, above all the violence and evil which render what is called history so black a record of folly

and crime, above all these, there have ever been certain luminous ideas, pillars of fire in the night of time, which have guided and guarded the great army of humanity, in its slow and hesitating, but

still onward, progress in knowledge and freedom.

When, at God’s decree, human greatness from all its state falls to the ground like a leaf; when death, usually doing its work in

silence, seems to cry out over the bier of the high and distinguished; when some figure, that has moved with imposing tread in our sight, towers still more out of the dark valley; when the drapery of mourn-

ing unrolls itself from private chambers to line the streets, darken the windows, and hang the heavens in black; when the stroke of the

bell adds a sabbath solemnity to the days of the week, and the boom

of guns, better fired over the dead than at the living, echoes all through our territory; while the wheels of business stop, and labor

leans its head, and trade foregoes its gains, and communication, save on one thpme, ceases, we may well ask the meaning and cause.

p. 194

A CONCLUDING CLAUSE.

18]

Insert both semicolons and dashes in their respective places :-—

Wherever on this earth an understanding is active to know and serve the truth wherever a heart beats with kind and pure and generous affections wherever a home spreads its sheltering wing over husband and wife, and parent and child, there, under every diversity of outward circumstance, the true worth and dignity and

peace of man’s soul are within reach of all. When, in addition to the mere spectacle and love of nature, there is a knowledge of it too when the laws and processes are understood which surround us with wonder and beauty every day when the great cycles are known, through which the material creation

passes without decay, then, in the immensity of human hopes, there

appears nothing which need stagger faith it seems no longer strange

that the mind which interprets the material creation should survive its longest period, and be admitted to its remoter realms. The infinite importance of what he has to do the goading convic-

tion that it must be done the utter inability of doing it the dreadful combination, in his mind, of both the necessity and incapacity the -

despair of crowding the concerns of an age into a moment the

impossibility of beginning a repentance which should have been completed, of setting about a peace which should have been concluded, of suing for a pardon which should have been obtained,

all these complicated concerns without strength, without time, with-

out hope with a clouded memory, a disjointed reason, a wounded spirit, undefined terrors, remembered sins, anticipated punishment, an angry God, an accusing conscience, all together intolerably augment

the sufferings of a body which stands in little need of the insupporta-

ble burthen of a distracted mind to aggravate its torments.

If thou art a child, and hast ever added a sorrow to the soul, or a furrow to the silvered brow, of an affectionate parent if thou art a husband, and hast ever caused the fond bosom that ventured its whole happiness in thy arms to doubt one moment of thy kindness or thy truth if thou art a friend, and hast ever wronged, in thought, word, or deed, the spirit that generously confided in thee if thou art

a lover, and hast ever given one unmerited pang to that true heart that now lies cold and still beneath thy feet, then be sure that every unkind look, every ungracious word, every ungentle action, will come thronging back upon thy memory, and knocking dolefully at thy soul then be sure that thou wilt lie down sorrowing and repentant on the grave, and utter the unheard groan, and pour the unavailing tear, more deep, more bitter, because unheard and unavailing.

p. 195

182

THE DASH.

RULE

The Echo, or Words repeated Rhetorically,

The dash is used before what is termed by clocu-

tionists

the echo; that is, before a word or phrase

repeated in an exclamatory or an emphatic manner. EXAMPLES.

1. Shall I, who was born, I might almost say, but certainly brought up, in the tent of my father, that most excellent general — shall I, the conqueror

of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves — shall I compare myself with this half-year captain? —a captain, before whorn should one place the two armies without their ensigns, I am persuaded he would not know to which of them he is consul.

2. Newton was a Christian;—- Newton! whose mind burst forth from the fetters cast by nature on our finite conceptions;

— Newton! whose science

was truth, and the foundation of whose knowledge of it was philosophy; not those visionary and arrogant presumptions which too often usurp its name,

but philosophy resting on the basis of mathematics, which, like figures, cannot lie;

— Newton! who carried the line and rule to the utmost barriers of

creation, and explored the principles by which, no doubt, all created matter is held together and exists. REMARKS.

a. Before the iteration of the words “ shall I,’’ in the first example, dashes are put without any other point, to show that what precedes is unfinished.

After the expression, “ this half-year captain,’ a note

of interrogation is placed, because the question terminates here.

6. In the second example, semicolons are introduced before the

dashes, in order to separate with greater clearness the various members, some of which are divisible into clauses.

But, in the more

simple kinds of sentences (as in the first five under the Oral Exercise, p. 183), a comma will be sufficient before the dash.

c. After expressions of the kind under consideration, it is seldom necessary to put the exclamatory mark; as, ‘‘ Edmund Burke was a

man who added to the pride, not merely of his country, but of his species; — a man who robed the very soul of inspiration in the

splendors of a pure and overpowering eloquence.”

The construction

of the language used, and the nature of the sentiment, will readily

indicate what point, if any, should be inserted.

p. 196

THE ECHO.

1838

d, When a parenthesis is introduced before an iterated expression, the dash should both precede and follow the parenthetical marks:

a8, —

When I am old — (and, oh, how soon Will life’s sweet morning yield to noon,

And noon’s broad, fervid, earnest light

Be shaded in the solemn night! Till like a story well-nigh told Will seem my life, when I am old), — When I am old, this breezy earth Will lose for me its voice of mirth;

The streams will have an undertone

Of sadness not by right their own.

e. The dash is also sometimes used before that which is merely an echo of the thought previously expressed; or, in other words, when the same idea is repeated in a different form in the same

sentence; as, “ Our own nature is the first and nearest of all reali-

ties, — the corner-stone of the entire fabric of truth.””

In many of

these passages, however, when they are of a less rhetorical nature,

the dash may be omitted; as, “‘ There is nothing more prejudicial

to the grandeur of buildings than to abound in angles;

a fault

obvious in many, and owing to an inordinate thirst for variety,

which, whenever it prevails, is sure to leave very little true taste”

ORAL EXERCISE.

Explain the reason why dashes are inserted in these sentences :=

You speak like a boy,—like a boy who thinks the old, gnarled

oak can be twisted as easily as the young sapling.

Never is virtue left without sympathy, sympathy dearer and tenderer for the misfortune that has tried it, and proved its fidelity.

There are, indeed, I acknowledge, to the honor of the human kind, — there are persons in the world who feel that the possession of good dispositions is their best reward.

The faithful man acts not from impulse, but from conviction, — conviction of duty, — the most stringent, solemn, and inspiring conviction that can sway the mind.

All great discoveries, not purely accidental, will be gifts to insight; and the true man of science will be he who can best ascend

into the thoughts of God, —he who burns before the throne in the

clearest, purest, mildest light of reason.

p. 197

184

THE DASH.

Man is led to the conception of a Power and an Intelligence supeand maintenance of rior to his own, and adequate to the production all that he sees in nature;—a Power and Intelligence to which he may well apply the term ¢/inite.

Can Parliament be so dead to its dignity and duty as to vive its

sanction to measures thus obtruded and forced upon them? —~ measures, my lords, which have reduced this late-flourishing kingdom to scorn and contempt.

He hears the raven’s cry; and shall he not hear, and will he not avenge, the wrongs that his nobler animals suffer? wrongs thet ery out against man, from youth to age, in the city and in the field, by the way and by the fireside.

The voices in the waves are always whispering to Florence, in of love eternal and illimitatheir ceaseless murmuring, of love;— ble, not bounded by the confines of this world or by the end of time, but ranging still, beyond the sea, beyond the sky, to the invisible

country far away.

"Twas my cradle in childhood, —that ocean so proud;

And in death let me have its bright waves for my shroud; Let no sad tears be shed, when I die, over me; But bury me deep in the sea, — in the sea.

Then I told what a tall, upright, graceful person their great-grandmother Field once was, and how in her youth she was esteemed the — (here Alice’s little right foot played an involuntary best dancer the best movement, till, upon my looking grave, it desisted)— dancer, I was saying, in the county, till a cruel disease, called a cancer, came, and bowed her down with pain; but it could never bend her good spirits, or make them stoop, but they were still upright, because she was so good and religious. Harriet complied, and read;— read the eternal book for all the weary and the heavy-laden; for all the wretched, fallen, and neglected — read the blessed history in which the blind, lame, of this earth;

palsied beggar, the criminal, the woman stained with shame, the

shunned of all our dainty clay, have each a portion that no human pride, indifference, or sophistry, through all the ages that this world shall last, can take away, or by the thousandth atom of a grain reduce; — read the ministry of Him who, through the round of human life, and all its hopes and griefs, from birth to death, from infancy to age, had sweet compassion for and interest in its every

. geene and stage, its every suffering and sorrow.

p. 198

THE ECHO.

185

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Let dashes be inserted before the echoes in the following passages : —

We must take a wakeful and active interest, that seeks them out; an interest that examines into the causes of their degradation, and labors to raise them to a more just social position; an interest that comes from faith in man as the child of God, and from faith in God as the heavenly Father; an interest that never despairs of the fallen or the lost, but makes Him who was the friend of publicans and sinners its model.

Truth should be enshrined in our inmost hearts, and become the object of our fervent contempiation, our earnest desire and aspira-

tion.

Consecrate, above all things, truth, whatever prejudices it

may proscribe, whatever advantages it may forfeit, and whatever privileges it may level; truth, though its recompense should be the privations of poverty or the darkness of the dungeon; truth, the first lesson for the child, and the last word of the dying; truth, the world’s regenerator, God’s image on earth, the essence of virtue in the character, the foundation of happiness in the heart; truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.

It is the sorrow which draws sweetness from the affections, and is hallowed by conscience, the sorrow that mingles its sanctifying drop in the cup of virtuous love and pure-souled friendship, the

sorrow which mortifies young ambition, and tempers presumptuous enthusiasm, the sorrow which makes us feel our weakness and inefficiency, when we have put forth earnest efforts to serve the truth and aid human progress, this is the sorrow which chastens and exalts the spirit, and fills it with a noble seriousness, and binds it by holier ties to that ideal of perfection and blessedness which never perishes from the trust and the aspiration of the true servants of God. It remains with you, then, to decide, whether that freedom at whose voice the kingdoms of Europe awoke from the sleep of ages, to run a career of virtuous emulation in every thing great and good; the freedom which dispelled the mists of superstition, and invited the nations to behold their God; whose magic torch kindled the rays

of genius, tha enthusiasm of poetry, and the flame of eloquence;

the freedom which poured into our lap opulence and arts, and embellished life with innumerable institutions and improvements, till it became a theatre of wonders; it is for you to decide, whether this freedom shall yet survive, or be covered with a funeral pall, and wrapped in eternal gloom.

—

p. 199

THE DASH.

186

RULE

IV.

A Parenthesis coalescing with the Main Passage.

When parentheses or intermediate expressions, that

easily coalesce with the construction of the sentences in which they occur, are separable into portions requiring points, dashes may be used instead of the common marks of parenthesis. EXAMPLES.

1. The whole deportment of a child is delightful. Its smile — always so

ready when there is no distress, and so soon recurring when that distress has — is like an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond. passed away Q, The archetypes, the ideal forms of things without, — if not, as some _ —~ exist philosophers have said, in a metaphysical sense, yet in a moral sense, within us. REMARKS.

a. When a sentence, being assertive, can be read without a point — that between the parts into which a parenthesis is introduced, is, on the supposition of its being excluded, — none will be requisite along with the dashes; as in the first example under the rule, which, if the parenthesis were omitted, would read thus: “ Its smile is like an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond.” b. But when, without the parenthesis, such a sentence would require a comma or any other grammatical mark at the place where the parenthesis occurs, both the dashes must be preceded by that mark, as in the second example.

c. The parenthetical portion, even though incapable of subdivision, is enclosed by dashes, when it contains an echo of what precedes, or is thrown in by way of explanation; as, “It was under

the influence of impulse —the impulse of nature on his own poetic

spirit — that Burns went forth singing in glory and in joy on the

- mountain-side.”’

d. If the parenthesis is expressive of inquiry or emotion, a note of interrogation or of exclamation should be used before the second dash, whatever may be the point, if any, required before the first; as, “ How little-—may it not be?—the most considerate feel the import of a grateful acknowledgment to God!” ‘In conforruity

p. 200

A COALESCING PARENTHESIS.

187

with a rule of the Trotters, ‘never to flinch from duty,’ 1 stand here, not to make a speech, — for who would expect me to make a speech?— but to thank you for the honor you have done us, and to give you some reminiscences of the Trotter family.”

_@. The following passage, which, as requiring a dash before the echoed word “not,” belongs to Rule Ill., p. 182, should, though perhaps it does not contain a strictly parenthetical expression,

have the same mark before the conjunction “ but,” in accordance with the examples under the present rule, in order to show the relation of the first two larger portions of the sentence to the latter: ‘Luther entered Rome, not in the mood of the scholar or the poet, — not to study inscriptions, or muse over the ruins of fallen grandeur, -—but with the burning zeal of a devout pilgrim, who hoped to find there a fountain which would slake the deep thirst of his soul.” jf. Though but partially embraced by the rule, the following is a sentence which requires for its elucidation a similar mode of pointing: “ The finest displays of power, — such as those which delineate Prometheus blessing mankind, and defying the thunder of Jove, even when fastened to the barren rock, with the vulture tugging at his heart, — what are they but the principles which have animated men who have struck for freedom; braving the dungeon, the stake, and the scaffold, in their enthusiasm for liberty, and their determination to emancipate themselves and their fellow-creatures?” Here, it will be seen, the nominative case is interrupted by the parenthesis, and then repeated in an interrogative form. (See Rule IL, p. 178.) To exhibit this interruption and change, made with a view of imparting intensity to the language, the parenthetical dashes, preceded each by a comma, are used.

g. Where one parenthetical clause is contained within another, both of which should be distinctly perceived, that which is less connected in construction, whatever the order, may be enclosed by the usual marks, and the other set off by dashes, as in the following lines; —

“ Sir Smug,” he cries \for lowest at the board — Just made fifth chaplain of his patron lord; _ His shoulders witnessing, by many a shrug, How much his feelings suffered — sat Sir Smug), ‘Your office is to winnow false from true:

Come, prophet, drink, and tell us what think you.”

h. For the merely grammatical mode of pointing parentheses and parenthetical expressions, see pp. 64, 65; 167-170.

p. 201

188

THE DASH. ORAL EXERCISE,

Show how these sentences exemplify the Rule and the Remarks (pp. 186-7): —

There are times— they only can understand who have known

them — when passion is dumb, and purest love maintains her whole

dominion. The true test of a great

| man— that, at least, which must secure

his placeamong the highest order of great n men — is his having been

in advance of hisage. In youth — thatis to say, somewhere between the period of child-

hood and manhood — there is commonly a striking development of sensibility and imagination.

To Andersen —a young man of vivid fancy, fine senses, and

cordial sympathies, who had been reared in the blessed air of renunciation — every thing in Italy was a delight. The magnificent creations of Southey’s poetry — piled up, like

clouds at sunset, in the calm serenity of his capacious intellect — have always been duly appreciated by poetical students and critical

readers; but by the public at large they are neglected. In pure description, —such as is not warmed by passion, or deep-

ened by philosophical reflection, — Shelley is a great master. In the heathen world, — where mankind had no divine revelation,

but followed the impulse of nature alone,—religion was often the basis of civil government.

Demosthenes, Julius Cesar, Henry the Fourth of France, Lord

Bacon, Sir Isaac Newton, Franklin, Washington, Napoleon, — dif:

ferent as they were in their intellectual and moral qualities, — were all renowned as hard workers.

When we look.up to the first rank of genius,

—to Socrates and

Plato and Pythagoras, to Paul and Luther, to Bacon and Leibnitz and Newton, we find they are men who bow before the infinite sanctities which their souls discern. -

There was a deep wisdom in the governing maxim of the old

Catholic church, — though often, it must be confessed, meagrely understood and falsely applied, — that truth is to be found in a

central point equally remote from divergent errors. The poetic temperament that had led Channing to the beach in .

Newport, and to the willow walk in Cambridge, — thrilling his soul with the sense of beauty, with yearnings to be free from imperfection, and visions of good too great for earth, — was working strongly

in him.

p. 202

A COALESCING PARENTHESIS.

189

e lion virtues that stand round — those Truth, courage, and justic the throne of national greatness — shape their blunt manners and

their downright speech.

who can doubt it? —is the noblest of themes for the Religi—on

exercise of intellect.

that all my ? —ed d why should I not have wish — oh! I wishe fellow-men possessed the blessings of a benign civilization and a

pure form of Christianity.

And the ear,—that gathers unto its hidden chambers all music

and gladness, — would you give it for a kingdom?

As thus I mused amidst the various train Of toil-worn wanderers of the perilous main, Two sailors— well I marked them (as the beam Of parting day yet lingered on the stream, Anda the sun sunk behind the shady reach) —

_ Hastened with tottering footsteps to the beach. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Insert m the following sentences the parenthetical dashes, with the pots accompanying them when required : —

In our dwellings and in concert-rooms, ay, and in opera-houses so the theme be pure and great there is preaching as surely as within church-walls.

(Remark 0.)

Ejther there is a resemblance and analogy but how imperfect between the attributes of the Divinity and our conceptions of them, or we cannot have any conceptions at all. (Remark d.) It is no exaggeration to say, that Milton alone has surpassed if even he has surpassed some of the noble sonnets of Wordsworth, dedicated to liberty and inspired by patriotism. (Remark c.) —,

It is when man is in his truest moods and these come never

oftener than in his sorrows and self-communings that he finds himself most in harmony with nature, and most rejoices in her kindly and wholesome influence. (Remark 0.)

When we read the maxims of La Rochefoucault which, false as they would be if they had been intended to give us a faithful universal picture of the moral nature of man, were unfortunately too faithful a delineation of the passions and principles that imme

the diately surrounded their author, and met his daily view inobsersplendid scenes of vanity and ambitious intrigue to which his

p. 203

190

THE DASH.

vation was confined it is impossible not to feel, that, acute and subtle as they are, many of these maxims must have been only the expression of principles which were floating, without being fixed in words,

in the minds of many of his fellow-courtiers.

(Remark 6.) The gods of the Greeks those graceful forms which Homer drew

in verse, and Phidias realized in marble were scarcely more irrational than the objects to which, in the name of Christianity, many

have paid their homage.

(Remark a.)

When a people shall learn that its greatest benefactors and most important members are men devoted to the liberal instruction of all its classes to the work of raising to life its buried intellect it will have opened to itself the path of true glory. (Remark c.) The contest between Christianity and the heathenish philosophy between the old polytheism and the new belief, a poetical mythology and a religion of morality is the most remarkable intellectual contest which has ever been exhibited and determined among the human

race.

(Remark a.)

Christianity which, as a reform lastingly affecting all the social relations of men, yet remains to be philosophically estimated (our limits forbid our entering upon that tempting field of inquiry) had sown the seeds whose fruit might supplement the pre-existing sys-

tem.

(Remark g.)

With regard to the powers of speech those powers which the very second year of our existence generally calls into action, the exercise of which goes on at our sports, our studies, our walks, our very meals, and which is never long suspended, except at the hour of

refreshing sleep how few surpass their fellow-creatures of common

mformation and moderate attainments!

(Remark 0.)

If we were to imagine present together, not a single small group only of those whom their virtues or talents had rendered eminent

in a single nation, but all the sages and patriots of every country and period, without one of the frail and guilty contemporaries that mingled with them when they lived on earth; if we were to imagine

them collected together, not on an earth of occasional sunshine and

alternate tempests like that which we inhabit, but in some still fairer world, in which the only variety of the seasons consisted in a change of beauties and delights a world in which the faculties and virtues that were originally so admirable continued still their glorious and immortal progress does it seem possible that the contemplation

of such a scene, so nobly inhabited, should not be delightful to him who might be transported intu it? (Remark 0.)

p. 204

ELLIPSIS OF THE WORD “NAMELY.” RULE

191

Ellipsis of the Adverb “ Namely,” §c.

The dash is commonly used where there is an ellipsis of such words as namely, that ts, and others having a similar import. EXAMPLES. 1. The four greatest names in English poetry are almost the first we come to, — Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton.

2. Nicholas Copernicus was instructed in that seminary where it is always happy when any one can be well taught, — the family circle.

8. Gray and Collins aimed at the dazzling imagery and magnificence of lyrical poetry, — the direct antipodes of Pope.

REMARKS.

a. This rule may be properly regarded as a branch of that on page 175, in reference to significant pauses; but it is here separately introduced, in consequence of its utility, and the frequency of its application to the purpose mentioned.

b. In the first two examples, the adverb namely, and, in the third example, the words which are, might be expressed where the dash is

jnserted; this mark being, in such cases, unnecessary. But it will

readily be seen, that, as exhibited in the briefer mode and with the rhetorical mark, the sentences are more effective than they would be if the words understood were supplied.

c. A comma is required before the dash, in accordance with the second branch of the rule, page 41, on words and phrases in apposition. The dash is annexed merely to lengthen the pause made in delivery.

d. Should the dash be necessarily used often in the same page for other purposes, it may not be improper to omit it, and to substitute

a colon or a semicolon for the comma and dash, before such a speci-

fication of particulars as occurs in the first example under the rule. e. When words after which namely is understood are followed by a quotation or a remark making sense in itself, the comma and dash are better omitted, and a colon substituted in their place; unless the quotation or remark commences a new paragraph, when a comma or colon and a dash are used, according to the degree of connection subsisting between the parts of the passage. — See page 138.

p. 205

192

THE DASH. ORAL EXERCISE.

Why are dashes inserted in the following sentences ? —~

From an illusion of the imagination arises one of the most im portant _

. principles in human nature, — the dread of death.

We should be enterprising in the exercise of our own minds, and in exploring the great sources of truth, — nature, man, revelation. Iam come. to regard the world as an arena in which I have to do two things, — improve others, and improve myself.

Kings and their subjects, masters and slaves, find a common level in two places, — at the foot of the cross, and in the grave.

The essence of all poetry may be said to consist in three things, — invention, expression, inspiration.

Angry thoughts canker the mind, and dispose it to the worst

temper in the world, — that of fixed malice and revenge. There are two kinds of evils,

— those which cannot be cured, and

those which can. I see in this world two heaps, — one of happiness, and the other

of misery. Amongst us men, these three things are a large part of our virtue, — to endure, to forgive, and ourselves to get pardon. The orations of Caesar were admired for two qualities which are seldom found together, — strength and elegance.

Among uncivilized nations, only one profession is honorable, — that of arms. In 1818, Moore entered upon his noble poetical and patriotic task, — writing lyrics for the ancient music of his native country. Milton’s life was a true poem; or it might be compared to an anthem on his own favorite organ, — high-toned, solemn, and majestic.

Nearly all the evils that afflict the sons of men flow from one source, — wealth, or the appropriation of things to individuals and to societies.

It is remarked by Rousseau, that every people in the ancient world that can be said to have had morals has respected the sex, —

Sparta, Germany, Rome. The best shelter that the world affords us is the first, — the affec-

tions into which we are born, and which are too natural for us to know their worth till they are disturbed.

In my analysis of the nature of love, I have stated its two great elements, — a vivid pleasure in the contemplation of the object of

regard, and a desire of the happiness of that object.

—

p. 206

ELL'‘PSIS OF THE WORD ‘“‘ NAMELY.”

1938

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Insert a comma and a dash where the ellipsis of the adverb ‘* namely,” or a , similar expression, occurs in the following sentences : —

is beautiful, The more sympathies we gain or awaken for what by so much deeper will be our sympathy for that which is most beautiful the human soul.

Many a brilliant reputation resembles a pageant showy and un-

substantial, attracting the acclamations of the crowd, and forgotten as soon as it has passed.

Faith builds, in the dungeon and the lazar-house, its sublimest shrines; and up, through roofs of stone, that shut up the eye of Heaven, ascends the ladder where the angels glide to and fro .

Prayer.

The violator of the sacred laws of justice feels, that the unhappy effects of his own conduct have rendered him the proper object of the resentment and indignation of mankind, and of what is the natural consequence vengeance and punisnment.

If men would confine their talk to those subjects only which they understood, that which St. John informs us took place once in heaven would happen very frequently on earth “silence for the space of half an hour.”

It is very difficult for those who, in early youth, have struggled with extreme penury, and who have been suddenly raised to ‘affluence, not to have at their heart what may seem like original constitutional avarice to those who do not reflect on its cause a love of money, when the love of money seems so little necessary to .

them.

The tools of labor are a sceptre of higher empire than monarch

ever swayed that of dominion over the earth and elements; they

are the weapons wherewith man achieves the purest and most penignant of all conquests the subjugation of the powers of material ‘nature to the service of humanity; and they are instruments also of the best of all worship that which a fertilized earth sends up

towards a gracious Heaven.

Friend of my bosom, thou more than a brother,

Why wert thou not born in my father’s dwelling?

So might we talk of the old familiar faces

How some they have died, and some they have left me, And some are taken from me. All are departed; All, all, are gone, the old familiar faces. 13

p. 207

194

THE DASH.

—

RULE

VI.

Subheads, &c., to Paragraphs.

The dash should be inserted between a title and the subject-matter, and also’ between the subject-matter and the authority from which it is taken, when they occur in the same paragraph. EXAMPLE.

Fieuiry 10 Gop. — Whatever station or rank Thou shalt assign me, I will

die ten thousand deaths sooner than abandon it. — Socrates. REMARKS.

a. The dash is sometimes inserted between a question and an

answer, when they come together in the same paragraph ; as, ‘* Who created you? — God.”

b. So, also, the dash is useful to connect separate paragraphs, dialogues, &c., when it is deemed necessary to save room. Thus: —

“How are you, Trepid? How do you feel to-day, Mr. Trepid? ?— ‘A great deal worse than I was, thank you; almost dead, I am obliged to you.” —“ Why, Trepid, what is the matter with you? ” —- “ Nothing, I tell you, in particular; but a great dealis the matter with me in general.”

c. Some writers put a dash after the name of an interlocutor, when it precedes in the same line the language which he utters. But, as the name is usually distinguished from the sentiment by its being put

in Italics or in small capitals, the dashis unnecessary; as, — Archbishop. What is your business with me, my friend? Gil Blas. I am the young man who was recommended to you by your nephew, Don Fernando.

d. A dash is commonly inserted between the word chapter or

section with its accompanying numeral, and the title of a subject,

when they are placedin the same line.

Thus:—

SHOT. LV.—-THE POWER OF IMAGINATION.

e. On the other hand, a dash is put after an expression connected in sense and construction with what follows, if the latter begins a new line; as, “ Occasionally, perhaps, he was — ‘Lofty and sour to them that loved him not;

But to those men that sought him, sweet as summer.’ ”

p. 208

OMISSION OF LETTERS.

RULE

195

VIL

Omission of Letters, Figures, or Words.

The dash is often used to denote an omission of letters or figures. EXAMPLES.

1. ByHW—ns!. 2. Matt. ix. 1—6 +

. *

. +

. ,

. e

. *

«6ofor': .

=... ° *

3. The years 1855-56

. ~By Heavens! Matt. ix. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

The years 1855, 1856.

REMARKS.

a. With the exception of the dash in the ellipsis of figures, this

mark may be made of various lengths, as directed by the taste of

the writer or printer, or in proportion to the number of letters o1 words omitted.

6. When, at the beginning or end of a poetical quotation, a por-

tion is omitted, it is recommended that a blank be left, instead of using the dash; the position of the lines sufficiently indicating the ellinsis; as, — Oh! it is excellent To have a giant’s strength.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Show how the two preceding Rules, and the Remarks under them, are applicable to the insertion of the dashes found in these sentences :—

By the L——-! madam, you wrong me, and the world shall know

it.

Though you have put me into darkness, and given your drunken

cousin rule over me, yet have I the benefit of my senses as well as your ladyship.

Canon the Sixth. — All words and phrases which are remarkably

harsh and unharmonious, and not absolutely necessary, may justly be judged to merit degradation. — JAMIESON: Grammar of Rhetoric, p. 64.

OBSEQUIES. — We celebrate noble obsequies to those we love, more by drying the tears of others than by hedding our own; and

the fairest funeral wreath we can hang on their tomb is not so fair

as a fruit-offering of good deeds. — Richter.

p. 209

THE DASH.

196

Q. What is the Scripture doctrine of progress? — A. Brethren,

I count not myself to have apprehended; but this one thingI do, forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth to those which are before, I press towards the mark for the prize of the high

calling of God in Christ Jesus.

(Phil. iii. 183—15.)

Don. Good-morrow, Count Erizzo: you are early. Are you bound to the palace? Eriz.

Ay, Donato,—

The common destination; but I go With an old friend.

Don.

What, Celso, thou turned courtier?

In the silence of evening, conscience has a distinct and audible voice.

And for us, erring, sinning men, it is greatly wise to listen, — .

“To talk with our past hours,

And ask them what report they bore to heaven,

And how they might have borne more welcome news.”?

A Sorr ANSWER TURNETH AWAY WRraATH. — The Horse in the Pound, and the Cattle in the Field.— The horse of a pious man in

‘Massachusetts happening to stray into the road, a neighbor of the man who owned the horse put him in the pound.

Meeting the owner

soon after, he told him what he had done, and added, “If ever I catch him in the road hereafter, I'l] do just so again.’ — “ Neighbor,” replied the other, “ not long since, I looked out of my window in the night, and saw your cattle in my mowing ground; and I drove them

out, and shut them in your yard; and J’dl do it again.””

Struck with

the reply, the man liberated the horse from the pound, and paid the charges himself. — Anecdotes of Kindness and Philanthropy. SECT. CLXXVIII.-— A CONSISTENT SERVANT.

A very rich lady in Boston had in her employment a young man from the country.

On certain occasions, he was instructed to

inform any. company who might ring at the door, that Mrs.

was

not at home.

One day, John made his reply to an intimate friend of the lady, who shortly went away, leaving a card and a promise to call again.

As the card was handed to Mrs. ——, she said, “ John, what did you say to the lady ?’? —*I told her you were not at home.’”’ — “ Well,

John, I hope you did not laugh? ’? — “ Oh, no! ma’am,”’ said John: “7 never laugh when I tell a lie.”

p. 210

197

CHAPTER IV. LETTER, SYLLABIC, AND QUOTATION POINTS.

THE points treated of in the two preceding chapters

have been classified into two kinds, —1. The gram-

matical; and, 2. The grammatical and rhetorical. As previously stated, they are used for the purpose of developing the sense of a composition, by exhibiting the various connections and constructions of words,

phrases, and clauses; and of aiding the delivery, by showing the nature of sentences, as affirmative, interrogative, emotional, parenthetic, suspensive, or broken. The marks to be considered in this chapter are — 1. The APOSTROPHE 2 The Hypoen

.....--({[’”

]

8. The Marks oF QuoTaTion.

[“ "]

These are put into a class different from the others,

because, though they serve to bring out the sense and to aid a just delivery, they do not exhibit any analysis

of sentences, or point out the relation of their parts to one another, but call the attention merely to letters or syllables, as do the Apostrophe and Hyphen, or to

something foreign to the meaning and construction of

the passages to which they are prefixed and annexed, as is the case with the Marks of Quotation.

p. 211

198

Sect. I. — THE APOSTROPHE.

The ApostTrorpHeE [’ | is a mark distinguished in appearance from a comma, only in being placed above the line; but its uses are altogether different. RULE

Elision of Letters, or Shortening of Words.

The apostrophe is used, chiefly in poetry and in familiar dialogue, to denote the omission of a letter or of letters. EXAMPLES.

he’s

....

‘em...

ehh) CHK em.

ne’er

...

Pthe.

I’ve

thou’rt

oer... 1.

don’t

.abbreviated for. I have. .

‘gainst .

in the.

he is.

never.

thouart.

6G is.

Over

tis

-e

...

donot.

who'd

who would

against.

yowl

.«

you will.

REMARKS.

a. A word pronounced in full should not be abbreviated with the

apostrophe, except in headings to column-work, where saving of room is necessary, and where the full point at the end would not indicate the word intended. — See p. 149, Remark ec. b. Though not, strictly speaking, abbreviations, the plurals of mere letters or of Arabic figures are formed by the insertion of an apostrophe before the s; as, “ Mark all the a’s and o’s in your

exercise.’? — “In this sum there are four 2’s and three 5’s.” c. It was once a common practice, especially in verse, to write and print ého’ and thro’, instead of though and through; but these

abbreviated forms are now discontinued, for the very just reason

that they do not shorten the pronunciation of the words, — the chief object for which abbreviations are used. To prevent, however, the

p. 212

ELISION OF LETTERS.

199

turning of a line in poetry, so as to occupy the space of two, which is offensive to the eye, tho’ and thro’ may occasionally be thus printed. d. Borough, the termination of some proper names, is not unfrequently contracted into bro or boro, either with or without the addition of an apostrophe; as, Marlbro, Sowthboro’. If the abbreviation is made, the apostrophe should be used to indicate the omission of the last letters; but; except in lines where room must

be saved, it would be much better to write and print all such words in full; as, Marlborough. Edinboro’ is a barbarous corruption of Edinburgh, and should never deface a printed page.

e. The particle tll, being a substitute for until, which is now seldom used, should not be preceded by an apostrophe. f. The mark under notice is erroneously used in the words to, the, heaven, power, every, threatening, and others of a similar nature, when written, as they frequently are in verse, ?’, th’, heav’n, pow’r,

ev'ry, threat’ning, &c.; for, though ‘apparently, in the full or unelided form, making a syllable additional to the number of the feet required by the verse, they are never pronounced differently from the same words in prose, nor does this pronunciation at all affect the rhythm. Indeed no elocutionist or poet deserving of the name would read the phrases, “ to attain perfection” and “the accomplished sofa,” in the following lines, as if written tatéaim perfection, thaccomplished sofa; though, judging from the mode in which they were originally printed (‘ t’ attain, th’ accomplished”’), a reader might _ imagine that this absurd pronunciation was requisite. The verse in which they occur should therefore stand thus: — So slow

The growth of what is excellent; so hard To attain perfection in this nether world. Thus, first, Necessity invented stools; Convenience next suggested elbow-chairs; And Luxury, the accomplished sofa next.

g. It seems to have been the practice in former times to pro-

nounce, as an additional syllable, the ed in the imperfect tense of verbs, in past participles, and in participial adjectives; and hence arose the propriety, in poetical works of a bygone age, of omitting the e in words of this sort, and of supplying its place with an apostrophe, when the termination treated of coalesced in pronunciation

with the primitive to which d or ed was attached. Now, however, , in — except that this syllable is not separately enunciated in prose learned, beloved, cursed, winged, when used as adjectives, and in some

p. 213

200

THE APOSTROPHE.

instances where a combination of harsh consonants necessarily requires the ed always to be articulated as a syllable; and except

also in Sacred Scripture, portions of which should be read in a very solemn manner, — the propriety of supplying the place of the e with

an apostrophe is exceedingly questionable.

In many recent publica-

tions, therefore, the mark of elision has been thrown aside in regard to such words, and a grave accent placed on the e in those only which are lengthened for the sake of the rhythm; as will be seen in the following lines: — I praised the sun, whose chariot rolled On wheels of amber and of gold; I praised the moon, whose softer eye Gleamed sweetly through the summer sky;

And moon and sun in answer said,

“ Our days of light are nwmberéd.”

Some writers, however, prefer to mark the additional syllable by an acute accent or a dixwresis on the vowel; as, mailéd or brightenéd. But, as the acute accent is sometimes used in poetry to point out a change in the true accentuation of a word,— as aspéct, instead of dspect, —and the disresis to separate in pronunciation two vowels coming together, — as Danaé,-— it would be better to appropriate in verse the grave accent to the lengthening of words ending in ed. h. In the preceding paragraph, we have endeavored to show the inutility of substituting the apostrophe for an e, in the termination ed, when pronounced in union with a preceding syllable. . It may, however, be proper to admit, that many respectable authors and printers adopt a middle course in reference to the words under consideration. They always retain the e in the imperfect tense and perfect participle of those verbs whose infinitive ends in that letter,

but in poetry use an apostrophe in the same forms of verbs, when the infinitive terminates with a consonant; as, “to grieve, grieved; to gain, gain’d.”” They also, as a matter of course, reject as useless the accent in such a word as numberéd, when the ed forms an additional syllable; the e being retained as an exception to their general

rule, in order to show that the ed does not coalesce with the preceding syllable. The mode of using the vowel and the apostrophe, — here adverted to, is exemplified in the following lines: Ages elapsed ere Homer’s lamp appear’d,

And ages ere the Mantuan swan was heard: To carry nature lengths unknown before,

To give a Milton birth, ask’d ages more.

p. 214

ELISION OF LETTERS.

201

i. Though but indirectly connected with punctuation, it may be remarked, that some of the past participles, having the termination ed, are in verse frequently written or printed with a ¢, as in the words lest, drest, dreamt; and this mode of spelling, though not analogical, is by no means unpleasant to the eye. In prose, however, when participles having both terminations occur, it is better to adopt that which is more usual; being, to speak generally, the regular form, ed.

ORAL EXERCISES.

State the reason given in the Rule for inserting an apostrophe in the words thus marked, and read them both in the elided and the full form:—

’Mid such a heavenly scene as this, death is an empty name. Thow’lt yet survive the storm, and bloom in paradise.

Methought that I lay naked and faint ’neath a tropic sky.

If I'd a throne, I’d freely share it with thee.

That lesson in my memory I’ll treasure up with care. I might have lived, and ’joyed immortal bliss.

’Mongst horrid shapes, and shrieks, and sights unholy. Let me thy voice betimes i’the morning hear.

Night stretches forth her leaden sceptre o’er a slumbering world. The thing they can’t but purpose, they postpone. K’en with the tender tear which nature sheds o’er those we love. Thouw’rt neither fair nor strong nor wise nor rich nor young. You're overwatched, my lord: lie down and rest. Here’s a marvellous convenient place for our rehearsal. Give a single lightning glance, and hell dwindle to a calf.

One, ’midst the forests of the West, by a dark stream is laid. Whene’er I wander in the grove, and gaze upon the lake.

Do not ask who'll go with you: go ahead. Tie up the knocker; say. I’m sick, — I’m dead. Go to, ’'1. no more oft: it hath made me mad. If that thou be’st a Roman, take it forth. Or in some hollowed seat, ’gainst which the big waves beat. Faint ’s the cold work till thou inspire the whole. A mingled air: ’twas sad by fits, by starts *twas wild. That errand-bound ’prentice was passing in haste. You’ve pulled my bell as if you’d jerk it off the wire.

Of herself survey she takes, but *tween men no difference makes. For, twixt the hours of twelve and one, methought I heard him shriek

p. 215

202

THE APOSTROPHE.

Show how the insertion or the omission of apostrophes in certain words, occurring tn these portions of verse, is borne out by the preceding Remarks : ~ Strike — till the last armed foe expires! Here Edwin and his Emma oft would stray,

To enjoy the coolness of the evening breeze. The toiling ploughman drives his thirsty teains To taste the slippery streams.

Though darkness o’er a slumbering world Her sable mantle throw,

Returning splendors are unfurled, And all is bright below. Unthinking, idle, wild, and young, I laughed and talked, and danced and sung;

And, proud of health, of freedom vain,

Dreamt not of sorrow, care, or pain.

Serenity broods o’er my mind; For I daily pray to Heaven, That, when the hour of death arrives,

My sins may be forgiven. But come, thou goddess fair and free,

In heaven yeleped Euphrosyne, And by men heart-easing Mirth; Whom lovely Venus, at a birth, With two sister Graces more,

To ivy-crownéd Bacchus bore.

Oh! when my friend and I In some thick wood have wandered heedless on, Hid from the vulgar eye, and sat us down Upon the sloping cowslip-covered bank,

Where the pure, limpid stream has slid along In grateful errors through the underwood,

Sweet murmuring, methought the shrill-tongued thrush Mended his song of love; the sooty blackbird Mellowed his pipe, and softened every note;

The eglantine smelled sweeter, and the rose Assumed a dye more deep; whilst every flower Vied with its fellow-plant in luxury

Of dress.

Oh! then, the longest summer’s day

Seemed too, too much in haste; still the full heart Had not imparted half: ’twas happiness

Too exquisite to last.

Of joys departed,

Not to return, how painful the remembrance!

p. 216

ELISION OF LETTERS.

2038

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

accent on the Insert the apostrophe wherever necessary5 and mark a grave al syllable : — vowel in ED in verse, when pronounced as an addition As Yorkshire Humphrey, tother day, Oer London Bridge was stumping. That forked flash, that pealing crash, Seemed from the wave to eweep her. At once they sprang

With haste aloft, and, peering bright, Descried afar the blessed sight.

For who but He that arched the skies Could rear the daisy’s purple bud, Mould its green cup, its wiry stem, Its fringed border nicely spin, And cut the gold-embossed gem,

That, set in silver, gleams within? Oer Idalia’s velvet green the rosy-crowned Loves are seen. Now, brothers, bending oer the accursed loom, Stamp we our vengeance deep, and ratify his doom. From seventeen years till now, almost fourscore, Here lived 1, but now live here no more.

Then lighted from his gorgeous throne; for now

Twixt host and host but narrow space was left.

Approach, and read (for thou canst read) the lay Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn.

Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulphurous bolt, Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak,

Than the soft myrtle.

A bearded man,

Armed to the teeth art thou: one mailed hand Grasps the broad shield, and one the sword. Blest be the day I scaped the wrangling crew From Pyrrho’s maze and Epicurus’ sty, Ang held high converse with the godlike few, Who, to the enraptured heart and ear and eye,

Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody. «

It gazes on those glazed eyes, it hearkens for a breath;

It does not know that kindness dies, and love departs from death.

p. 217

204

THE APOSTROPHE.

RULE

The Genative or Possessive Case.

The apostrophe is used to distinguish the possessive

case of nouns; which is usually formed in the singular number by adding to the nominative an s, with an apostrophe before it, and in the plural by simply an-

nexing this mark. EXAMPLES.

1. What majesty attends Night’s lovely queen!

2. The Ages’ voice speaks evorlasting truth. REMARKS.

a. The apostrophe is sometimes used in the singular number without the additional s, when the nominative ends in s, $8, Cé, OY @}

as, “‘ Moses’ rod,” “ for righteousness’ sake,” “ for conscience’ sake,”

“the administratriz’ sale.”

This mode of punctuation holds good chiefly in proper names having a foreign termination, and in such

common nouns as are seldom used in the plural, ——an exception to

the rule of forming the possessive singular, which is founded on the propriety of modifying the disagreeable nature of the hissing sound.

6. Recourse, however, should not be had to the principle laid down in the preceding remark, when its adoption would cause ambiguity, or when the addition of the s is not offensive to a refined ear. For instance, the Italic words in the phrases, “ Burns’s Poems,” “James's book,” “ Thomas’s cloak,” “the fox’s tail,” though they contain the hissing sound, are not particularly unpleasant, and are far more analogical and significant than the abbreviated forms, “ Burns’

Poems,” ‘ James’ book,” “ Thomas’ cloak,” “the fox’ tail.” c. We have no doubt that the distinctions here suggested are important, and accord with the genius of the English language; but in poetry none but the author himself should change the form of the possessive, whether written with or without the annexed s, as,

unless the whole line were recast, such an alteration would probably mar the harmony of the verse.

Even in prose, a printer should not take the liberty of changing the form of a possessive, without the consent of the author; this matter being yet a subject on which

there is a difference of opinion among literary men.

p. 218

205

THE POSSESSIVE CASE.

d. To form the possessive case plural, the apostrophe, with an s after it, is added to the nominative plural, when it does not end

in that letter; as, “* Men's passions; women’s tenderness; children’s jeys.”

e. The possessive case of pronouns is formed without an apos-

trophe; as, —

SINGULAR,

PLURAL.

Mine. Yours. His.

Ours. Yours. Theirs.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Hers. Its. Whose.

Theirs. Theirs. Whose.

Some grammarians would use the apostrophe before the s in ours,

yours, hers, its, theirs. But the impropriety of this is evident from the mode in which the other pronouns in the possessive case are always written; namely, mine, his, and whose; which exhibit the

case without the mark in question.

ORAL EXERCISES.

State the reason for the insertion and position of the apostrophe in these sentences :—

A man’s manners not unfrequently indicate his morals.

On eagle’s wings he seemed to soar. — Our enemies’ resistance.

The shepherd-swain on Scotia’s mountains fed his little flock. And the Persians’ gems and gold were the Grecians’ funeral pyre. We will not shrink from life’s severest due. — Woman’s rights. Few columns rose to mark her patriots’ last repose.

The sun is the poet’s, the invalid’s, and the hypochondriac’s friend. The ladies’ gloves and shawls were exceedingly handsome.

Philippa was the name of Edward the Third’s queen.

O majestic Night, Nature’s great ancestor, Day’s elder born!

He must strike the second heat upon the Muses’ anvil. Mother’s wag, pretty boy, father’s sorrow, father’s joy. Spirit of Good! on this week’s verge I stand. Bid them in duty’s sphere as meekly move.

Why is that sleeper laid to rest in manhood’s pride? Who loves not spring’s voluptuous hours, or summer’s splendid reign?

Is sparkling wit the world’s exclusive right?

The Turk awoke: he woke to hear his sentry’s shriek. The people’s shouts were long and loud. — Thy mercies’ monument. A friend should bear a friend’s infirmities. — The ox’s hide.

p. 219

206

THE APOSTROPHE.

Show how the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 204-5) are applicable te the possessive case in the following phrases and sentences : —

Adam’s book, not Adams’s: the book did not belong to Adams. John Quincy Adams’s death was no common bereavement. Sir Humphrey Davy’s safety-lamp. — Davis’s Straits.

Josephus’s “ History of the

Jews ”’ is a very interesting work.

Andrew’s hat, not Andrews’s. — Andrews’s “ Latin Reader.’’ For quietness’ sake, the man would not enter into any dispute.

Col. Matthews’s delivery. — Matthew’s Gospel, not Matthews’s.

The witness’s testimony agreed with the facts of the case. Let Temperance’ smile the cup of gladness cheer. Nor roamed Parnassus’ heights nor Pindus’ hallowed shade. There is no impropriety in speaking of the cockatrice’s den.

I oft have sat on Thames’ sweet bank to hear my friend. Like the silver crimson shroud, that Phoebus’ smiling looks doth grace.

Faustus’ offence [the offence of Faustus] can never be pardoned. After two years, Porcius Festus came into Felix’s room.

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Agreeably to the Rule and the Remarks, insert apostrophes in, or annex them to, the nouns in the possessive case which occur in the following sentences ; but let the pronouns remain unmarked : —

The traveller went to lodge, not in Mr. Jacobs house, but in Mr. (Rule, and Remark 6.)

Jacobss.

I am going to the booksellers [sing.] to purchase Popes Homer and Drydens Virgil. (Rulé.) Procrustes bed.— Hortensius influence. — Achilles shield. — Pocahontas father. — Sophocles Greek Grammar. (Remark a.) The precepts of wisdom form the good mans interest and happiness.

(Rule.)

Robert Burnss prose as well as poetical writings are astonishing productions.

(Remark 6.)

Fames proud temple shines afar.— From mens experience do thou learn wisdom.

(Rule, and Remark a.)

They applauded that conduct of his, but condemned hers and yours.

The reason of its being done I cannot tell.

(Remark ¢.)

He had the surgeons [sing.], the physicians [sing.], and the apothecarys advice.

(Rule.)

The tendency of Dickenss genius, bothin delineating the actual

and the natural, is to personify, to individualize.

(Remark 6.)

p. 220

207

THE POSSESSIVE CASE.

Goethes “ Wilhelm Meister’ was the rich result of ten years labor.

(Rule.)

titude.

(Rule.)

John Parrys children played with David Parriss. — Williams wig was purchased at Mr. Williamss shop. (Rule, and Remark 8.) I would rather have arrived at one profound conclusion of the sages meditation in his dim study, than to win that gaze of the mulin writing or in print, to Should you have occasion to refer, Burns sermons, meaning the sermons of Burn, you must be careful

to put the apostrophe in its right place. (Rule, and comp. Rem. 6.) A drunkard once reeled up to him with the remark, “ Mr. Whitefield, I am one of your converts.” — ‘1 think it very likely,” was

the reply; “for I am sure you are none of Gods.” (Rule.) I was surprised to see so many young idle sparks listening

quietly and attentively to Dr. David Sparkss lecture on Drusius, Grotius, and Michaelis theological works. (Remarks 8, a.) And still the Greek rushed on, beneath the fiery fold,

Till, like a rising sun, shone Xerxes tent of gold.

(Remark a.)

Education does not commence with the alphabet: it begins with a mothers look; with a fathers nod of approbation, or a sign of reproof; with a sisters gentle pressure of the hand, or a brothers

noble act of forbearance; with handfuls of flowers in green dells, on hills and daisy meadows; with birds nests admired, but not touched; with humming bees and glass hives; with pleasant walks in shady

lanes; with thoughts directed, in sweet and kindly tones and words, | to nature, to beauty, to acts of benevolence, to deeds of virtue, to the sense of all good, and to God himself.

(Rule.)

Behold Affections garden, whose sweet flowers — A blending of all odors, forms, and hues — Were nursed by Fancy and the gentle Muse In heaven-born Poesys delightful bowers. Ye who appreciate the poets powers,

And love the bright creations of his mind,

Come, linger here awhile, and ye shall find

A noble solace in your milder hours: Here Byrons genius, like an eagle, towers In dread sublimity; while Rogers lute,

Moores native harp, and Campbells classic flute, Mingle in harmony, as beams with showers. Can their high strains of inspiration roll,

Nor svothe the heart, nor elevate the soul?

(Rule.)

p. 221

208

Sect. Il.—THE HYPHEN.

The Hypuen [ - ] is sometimes employed to join the constituent parts of compound and derivative words.

It is also used to divide words into syllables, for the purpose either of exhibiting the pronunciation, or of

showing the simple portions into which words of more than one syllable may be resolved. REMARKS.

a. From this explanation, it will be seen that the hyphen is used

for two very different purposes,—to join and to separate.

As a

mark of junction, it is inserted between the simple words of which certain compounds are formed; and, in peculiar circumstances, between 2 preposition, or a portion of a word, and the word to which

it is prefixed; as, “the inhuman and fiendish slave-trade;’’ “a man of pre-eminence;” “the Neo-Platonic philosophers.’?

As a mark

of separation, it is employed by lexicographers and by writers or printers to analyze words, and to divide them into syllables; by the former to show as accurately as possible the pronunciation, and by

the latter to disunite portions of words that cannot be brought into a line of manuscript or of letterpress. 6. The distinction between a compound and a derivative word is,

that the former consists of two or more simple words which are separately and commonly used in English;

whereas the latter is

made up of simple words, or portions of words, which are not each

separately current in the language; as, psewdo-apostle. — See page 23, Def. XII.

c. But the simple words which make up compounds and derivatives are not always united by the hyphen; a few only of the latter being thus distinguished, and a very considerable number of the

former, particularly those which form compound nouns, having coalesced so closely in pronunciation as to require them to be

p. 222

209

COMPOUND WORDS.

presented to the eye as one word. It is, therefore, a matter of importance to ascertain when it will be proper to join the parts of compounds with the hyphen, and when to unite them without this connecting mark. The mode of using the hyphen in syllabica-

tion is also attended with difficulties, which may, in a great measure, be obviated by an appeal to certain principles.

RULE

Compound Words.

§ I. When each of the words of which a compound is formed retains its original accent, they should be united by a hyphen.

§ II. But, when the compound word has only one accent, its parts are consolidated ;. being written or printed without the hyphen. EXAMPLES.

§ II.

§ 1.

1. A fortunate book’seller. 2. A mean nobleman.

1. The all’-wise’ God. 2. In’cense-breath’ing morn.

REMARKS.

“ incense-breathing,”’ “ bookseller ” a. The words “ all-wise”’ and and “nobleman,” are compounds, because they severally represent, not two separate ideas, but one compound idea. The primitives which enter into the composition of “ all’-wise’”’ and “ in’cense-breath’ing ” retain the same accents as they had before these compounds were formed; but, as they could not be readily distinguished if written or printed closely together, the only mode of showing that they are compound is by inserting a hyphen between them. On the other hand, the simple words forming the compounds “ bookseller’? and “nobleman” do not both retain the accents which are heard in the phrases, “a, seller of books,’ “a man who is noble,” but so perfectly

coalesce in pronunciation as to form one unbroken, continuous word, 14

p. 223

210

THE HYPHEN.

with a single accent, — bookseller, no’bleman; the hyphen, therefore, being unnecessary.

b. In the preceding paragraph, it was said that a compound word represents a compound idea, and not two ideas.

This definition, Dr.

Latham, from whom we borrowed it, illustrates (in his work on the

“English Language,” page 859) by the expression, “a sharp-edged instrument,” which means an instrument with sharp edges; whereas a sharp edged instrument denotes an instrument that is sharp and has edges.

It may not be practicable to apply the remark in each

and all cases; but it is certain that compounds have often a signification very different from that which the same words convey when written apart, and that this difference should be indicated by the mode of exhibiting them.

Thus, dlackbird is properly written as one

word, because it represents a particular species of birds; whereas a black bird means any bird that is black.

A glass-house is a house in

which glass is made, while a glass house is a house made of glass.

The goodman of a house may, for aught we know, be a very bad man; and a good man may, for certain reasons, have no claim whatever to the civility implied in the use of the compound: yet both

terms, if correctly written, will be understood. Forget me not literally

expresses an earnest desire, on the part of a speaker or a writer, that he should be remembered; but, in a metaphorical sense, the

same words, when combined, —/forget-me-not,— denote a certain flower, emblematic of friendship or fidelity.

c. All compounds, therefore, should be so written as will best exhibit their true pronunciation, and the ideas intended to be expressed, — objects which, we have seen, may to some extent be

effected either by consolidating the simples, or by uniting them with a hyphen.

And here the rule already laid down might naturally be

expected to come to our aid, as being founded on the characteristics and tendencies of the English language itself.

But, notwithstanding the obvious worth and utility of the rule, the practice of some of our best authors and printers, as to the mode of exhibiting many of the compounds in use, is so conflicting, and the inconsistencies of perhaps all our lexicographers are so numerous, not to speak of their defect in distinguishing the compounds which have only one accent from those which have two, that it would be regarded as pedantry

or presumption for a punctuator to attempt subjecting each of the

compound words to the operation of the rule; and, on the other hand, it would be impracticable for him, without filling a volume, to give perfect lists of all the compounds, with the fluctuating and

p. 224

COMPOUND WORDS.

211

diflerent, modes in which they are presented in dictionaries and other books. It will therefore be our aim merely to specify some of the exceptions to the rule, and to throw out a few suggestions applicable to certain classes of compounds; recommending that, in all cases where the general and best usage as to the insertion or the omission of the hyphen cannot readily be learned, recourse be had, when the .

accentuation is previously known, to the rule itself.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE.

d. According to the first section of the rule, those simples in a compound word which retain their original accent should be united

by a hyphen.

The exceptions to this principle are not very nume-

rous, and consist chiefly —1. Of a few compounds in common use, such as everlasting, not’withstanding, which are universally written, at the present day, each as one unbroken word: 2. Of such as terminate in monger; as, bor’oughmong’er, Vronmong’er: 8. Of almost all those beginning with the prepositions over, under; as, o’verbal’ance, ing. un’ derstand

e. According to the second section of the rule, when only one of the simple words retains its original accent in a compound, they are consolidated, being written without a hyphen. But to this principle there is a considerable number of exceptions, which may, however, be mostly reduced to the following classes: —

1. Those compounds in which the first of the primitive words ends, and the second begins, with the same letter; as, book/-keeping, ean’-ring, glow’-worm, night’-time, poor’-rate, rear’~rank, rough’-hewn. The word oft’times, however, is usually written without the hyphen. 9. Those compounds in which the first of two primitives ends, and the second begins, with a vowel; as, fire’-arms, pine’-apple,

peace’-offering.

3. Those whose meaning would be obscured, or whose pronunciation would be less easily known, by the consolidation of the simples; as, ass’-head, pot’-herb, s\ap’-house, first’rate. The reason for the division of these and sin ilar primitives is, that the s, ¢, and p are pronounced separately from the h following them, and the s¢ from the r; whereas, when in their usual state of combination, sh, th, ph, and str are each pronounced with one impulse of the voice.

4, All compounds ending with the word tree; as, beech’-tree, —

date’-tree, pear’-tree, ap’ple-tree: also those terminating with book; as, day’-book, red’-book, shop’-book. '

p. 225

212

THE HYPHEN.

5. Nouns formed of a verb and an adverb or preposition; as, a break’-down, a look’-out, a start’-up: or of a present participle and a noun; as, dwell’ing-place, hum/ming-bird, print’ing-press, spin’ning-mill,

writ/ing-school.

6. Adjectives, or epithets, which are formed in a great variety of

ways; as, air’-built, heart’-broken; first’-born, one’-legged, two’-leaved ;

aW’-bred,

above’-said, down’-trodden;

church’-going, brain’~racking ;

good-looking, hard’-working; grown’-up, unlooked’-for, unheard’-of.

COMPOUND ADJ ECTIVES AND COMPOUND NOUNS. Jf. An immense majority of the compound adjectives in the English language, whether with one or two accents, have their

primitives united by a hyphen.

A few, however, of very common

occurrence, and having only one accent, are consolidated; namely,

those which are the same as the one-accented ‘compound nouns from which they have been taken; as, high’land: those formed from them

either by adding ed or ing, or by changing er into these letters; as, cob’webbed (from cob’web), shoe’making (from shoe’maker): and those terminating with the words faced, coming, holding, and like;

as,

bare’faced, forth’coming, slave’holding, child/like (the word like, how-

ever, being preceded by a hyphen, when joined to a proper name, or to a word ending inl; as, Hve’-like, owl’-like).

To which may be

added the words anoth’er, free’born, in’born, out/door.

g. Board, house, room, side, stone, time, yard, are usually consolidated with a preceding noun if of one syllable, and are united by a hyphen to it if consisting of more than one; as, cupboard, shovel-board ;

schoolhouse, senate-house; bedroom, composition-room; roadside, moun~ tain-side; tombstone, eagle-stone; daytime, dinner-time ; graveyard, timber-yard.

But the word town-house is commonly hyphened; so,

also, town-hall, seed-hall, &c.

h. The compound nouns ending in the word woman are irregular in their form; as, goodwoman, needlewoman, tirewoman; market-woman, oyster-woman.

If, however, these last two compounds have severally

two accents, and the three preceding have each only one, they will be subject to the main rule, as given on page 209.

%. Compound nouns are sometimes formed by uniting a present participle and an adverb or preposition; as, the coming-together, the

carrying-away, the sending-off, the pulling-down, the blotting-out. A hyphen is inserted between the parts of all such compounds, which are readily known by their taking an article before them, as in the examples here given.

p. 226

COMPOUND WORDS.

213

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS IN APPOSITION.

j. Nouns in apposition are written and printed apart; as, Sister Anne, Brother Marshall, Father Taylor, Professor Bush, the tyrant Nero, the poet Milton, that fellow Turpin, the lily Asphodel. But, when put before a common noun, whether singular or plural, the

words sister, brother, fellow, severally form part of a compound; as, the sister-city, my brother-ministers, our fellow-men; and, in all such cases, the hyphen should be used. Fatherhood, brotherhood, and sisterhood are not regarded as exceptions; for, according to the distinction made between compounds and derivatives, these terms will be subject to Rule II., p. 219; being each employed as one word, and without a hyphen, because the termination hood is not separately found, with the sense here used, in the English language. k.

The pronouns he, she, are commonly united by a hyphen

to the nouns which they precede and qualify; as, he-calf, she-assey. The words male and female, when adjectives, are better put separately from the nouns which they qualify; as, a male descendant. NOUNS USED ADJECTIVELY.

l. The first of two nouns, when it denotes the material or substance of which a thing is made, should stand apart from the noun

which it qualifies; as, brass pan, brick floor, glass pitcher, gold ring, granite building, mud cabin, oak chest, silver spoon, stone wall, tin basin. But, when the nouns so coalesce in pronunciation that one of them

has lost its original accent, they should be written or printed as one word; as, rail/road, rain’drop, snowball. m. Two nouns may also be written as distinct words, when the

former is put instead of an adjective; as, an angel woman (for an

angelic woman), an anniversary feast (for an annual feast), business

connections (for mercantile or trading connections), a country trip (for a rural trip), church government (for ecclesiastical government), giant labor (for gigantic labor), gospel truth (for evangelical truth), home life (for domestic life), mountain billows (for huge billows), the north wind (for the northern wind), the west part (for the western part). gm The same remark is applicable to nouns of more than one syllable, when they are necessarily used, for want of suitable adjectives, to express the nature, quality, or some modification of the nouns before which they are placed; as, benefit societies, evening amusements, family party, leisure hours, party strife, prose writings summer sky, Sunday training, village maid.

p. 227

214

THE HYPHEN.

o. So, also, compound nouns, when used adjectively, are separated from the nouns which they precede or qualify; as, pindrop silence,

railway travel, a whalebone rod, the noonday sun; twenty-horse power, a, custom-house officer, the council-room table.

But when the compound

noun, and the simple noun which it precedes, have altogether but

one accent, they should

appear as one word;

as, high’wayman,

domes’day-book.

p. Two words, the last of which is a noun, though in their usual construction separate, are hyphened when put before a noun which

they qualify, but are set apart from the latter; as, high-water mark,

short-metre stanzas, Sunday-school system, wild-beast skins, a bird's-eye view, a first-class car, a manual-labor business, an up-hill game, the one-hour rule. g. Proper names, when used as adjectives, should be separated from the words which they qualify or characterize;

as, Angola

sheep, April fool, Argand lamp, Barbary horse, Bristol stone, California

_ gold, Epsom salts, French chalk, Jamaica pepper, Jerusalem artichoke, Madeira wine, Newfoundland dog. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

r. Two numerals expressing a compound number, if in their ordinary construction,

are united by a hyphen;

as,

twenty-one,

ninety-nine: but if inverted, and a conjunction is placed between them, so as to constitute a phrase, they are written or printed apart; _as, three and thirty.

The word fold is closely annexed to the cardi-

nals when they have only one syllable, but united to them by a '

hyphen when they have more than one;

as, twofold, twelvefold;

thirty-fold, seventy-six-fold, two hundred-fold.

The word penny is sub-

ject to the same principle; as, threepenny, fifteen-penny.

Halfpenny

is an unhyphened compound; but one penny, two words.

Pence,

being a noun, is entirely separated from the numerals which precede it, when they consist of more than one syllable; as, fifteen pence:

but, like the words fold and penny, it is joined without the hyphen, when they are monosyllabic; as, fourpence, tenpence.

s. The simple words in such terms as one-half, two-thirds, fivesixteenths, — though, strictly speaking, not compounds, -—— are usually joined together by the hyphen. | t. A half-dollar, a quarter-barrel, and all such compounds, are written with a hyphen between the simple words; but, when an

article or a preposition intervenes, the parts of the phrase should be separated; as, half a pint, quarter of a pound.

p. 228

COMPOUND WORDS.

2135

ADJECTIVES CONSOLIDATED WITH NOUNS.

u. Adjectives are not unfrequently consolidated with the nouns

which they precede, when the compound thus formed admits of but one accent; as, black’board, bluebotile, foreground, freemason, glassworks, goldsmith, hardhead, highlands, hotspur, longboat, lowlands, madhouse,

mainmast,

redbreast,

roundhead,

sweetbread, twelvemonth, wildfire.

safeguard, stronghold,

v. Freewill — having, when used adjectively, the accent on the

first syllable; as, a free’will offering — should be written as one word; but, when employed in its proper character as a compound noun,

with the accent on the last syllable, the hyphen may be inserted

between its parts; as, the doctrine of free-will’. w. Anybody, everybody, somebody, nobody, indicating persons, are,

in this form, distinguished from the phrases any body, every body, no body, some body, which, as separate words, and with a pronunciation different from that of the first class, refer to inorganic substances.

Something and nothing have also coalesced in pronunciation and form; but every thing and any thing (like the words any one and every one) may follow the analogy of the language, by which adjectives

are separated from the nouns which they qualify. x. When the noun which is qualified by an adjective retains its original accent, the two words should not appear as a compound,

either with or without the hyphen.

In the following and other

phrases, therefore, which are sometimes written as compounds, the

adjectives should stand apart: Animal magnetism, armed chair, attic

story, blank verse, common sense, earthen ware, good nature, good will, tll humor, old age, old maid, redeeming love, the black art.

y. Such abbreviated sentences as good-morning, good-night, good-by

may have a hyphen between the parts of which they consist. NAMES OF PLACES. z Names of cities and other places, when formed of common nouns, are consolidated;

Newport, Southbridge.

as, Barnstable, Bridgewater, Fairhaven,

When the second of the primitives is in itself

& proper name, it should be set apart from the first; as, North Britain, New York: though, in spite of analogy, there are a few exceptions; as, Hasthampton and Southampton (the h, in the latter

word, being omitted), which usually appear as undivided words. 2a. But those parts of the names of places which, according to the

usual construction, are disconnected should be united by a hyphen

p. 229

216

THE HYPHEN.

when they are employed as adjectives; as, the South-Boston foundry, the New-England people, the East-India Company. This remark is

well illustrated by Mr. Goold Brown, in his work, ‘‘ The Grammar of English Grammars,” p. 159: “In modern compound names, the hyphen is now less frequently used than it was a few years ago. They seldom, if ever, need it, unless they are employed as adjectives; and then there is a manifest propriety in inserting it. Thus the phrase, the New London Bridge, can be understood only of a new

bridge in London; and, if we intend by it a bridge in New London, we must say, the New-London Bridge. So the New York Directory is not properly a directory for New York, but a new directory for York.”

2b. So, also, the word street, when forming part of a compound epithet, is connected by a hyphen with the word preceding it; as, a Washington-street omnibus: but, when otherwise used, it is better written or printed separately; as, Washington Street, Boston. The same rule will hold good in respect to such words as place, square,

court, &c.; as, ‘ Howard-place Church and Crown-court Chapel are situated not far from Pemberton Square, New Brixton.” THE POSSESSIVE CASE.

2c. When the possessive case, and the word which governs it, — do not literally convey the idea of property, or have lost this signification, they are connected by means of a hyphen; as, Jobd’s-tears, Solomon’ s-seal, Jesutts’-bark, bear’s-foot, goat’s-beard ; Jew's-harp; St. Vitus’s-dance, the king’s-evil. As compounds, these words do not severally denote the tears which the Arabian patriarch shed, a seal belonging to the wise Hebrew ruler, bark which is the property of Jesuits, the foot of a bear, the beard of a goat, the harp of a Jew, the dance of St. Vitus, the evil of the king. But, were the primitive words from which they are formed put separately, they would have these meanings.

2d. When, however, institutions, churches, law-courts, places,

rivers, &c., are called after distinguished men, the names put in the possessive case are separated from those of the objects which they characterize; as, St. Mary’s College, St. Peter's Church, St. Paul’s Churchyard, Queen’s Bench, Van Diemen’s Land, Merchants’ Exchange, the St. John’s River. The names of holydays, if similarly

formed, may be written or printed in the same manner; as, New Year’s Day, All Saints’ Day. In all such phrases, the hyphen is not required, because they have severally but one signification.

p. 230

COMPOUND WORDS.

217

2¢. If the possessive case, and the noun governing it, are used in

the literal sense of the words, and have only one accent, they should be written or printed as a compound, without either apostrophe or hyphen; as, beeswax, crafismaster, doomsday, hogslard, kinswoman, lambswool (but, if meaning ale mixed with sugar, &c., lamb’s-wool, according to Remark 2 ¢), newspaper, ratsbane, townsman, tradesman. _

COMPOUND PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS.

2. Compound pronouns have always their parts consolidated;

as, yourself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ownself, ownselves ;

whoever, whomsoever, whatever, whatsoever.

One’s self is probably a

phrase, and not, as is sometimes written, a compound, — oneself or one’s-self.

I myself is also a phrase, or two words in apposition.

2g. Compound adverbs are, generally speaking, consolidated; as,

altogether, awhile, beforehand, evermore, henceforward, indeed, instead,

everywhere, nowhere, nevertheless, somehow, nowise, anywise, likewise, wherewithal, hereupon, whithersoever.

But to-day, to-night, to-morrow,

are almost universally printed with a hyphen.

So also now-a-days ;

and perhaps such words as inside-out, upside-down.

There is a ten-

dency on the part of American printers to spell the words for ever as one continuous compound; but they everywhere occur in the common version of the Bible as a phrase; and, the eye being thus

accustomed to their separation, it would probably be better to retain this form.

By and by are obviously three words, though sometimes

written as a compound.

COMPOUND AND OTHER PHRASES. 2h. All phrases which are thrown out of their usual order, and,

by a strange collocation, put before the nouns which they are made to qualify, should. have a hyphen between their parts; as, some

out-of-the-world place, a matier-of-fact-looking

town, long-looked-for

news, out-of-door business, raw-head-and-bloody-bones stories, the alwayswind-obeying deep, the ever-to-be-honored Chaucer, the half-burnt-through

bottom of the saucepan, well-laid-out parks. 2%. When epithets are formed of an adverb ending in ly and of a participle, the two words are usually separated without the hyphen;

as, a newly built house, a beautifully formed pen.

The reason probably

is, that the structure of such adverbs does not easily admit of their

janction with the words modified. 27. When 2 noun is placed before an adverb or preposition and a participle, these do not make a compound epithet, and should

p. 231

218

THE HYPHEN.

therefore be written or printed as two words; as, a catalogue well arranged, love ill requited, the place before mentioned. 2k. Words in phrases should be written and printed separately;

as, above all, after all, at second hand, baln of Gilead, cheek by jowl, in

any wise (but, without the preposition, and as an adverb, anywise), might and main, rank and file, tit for tat, tooth and nail. Of such phrases, however, as father-in-law, attorney-at-law, commander-in chief, the parts are usually connected by a hyphen. |

27. When a compound phrase is formed of two or more words which are severally associated in sense with one term, the primitives

should stand apart; as, cannon and musket balls. Were a hyphen inserted between “ musket’? and “ balls,” the meaning of the phrase

would not be cannon-balls and musket-balls, but cannon, or large guns, and also balls for the musket. The following are additional examples: Household and needle work; land and river travel; a chief or master builder; the watch and clock repairing business; a son and daughter in law; second, third, or fourth rate effects. Some would insert a hyphen between the parts of the last compound, and attach

it to the disjointed words; as, iron-, cotton-, silk-, print-, and dye-works : but, though more correct, this is a German mode of exhibiting such compounds, with which the English eye is not familiar. All difficulty would be obviated, were the phrases changed into language more grammatical.

2m. All foreign phrases should be written and printed as they are found in the language from which they are taken; as, “John

Sharp, Secretary pro tempore.” — “It was a sine qua non, an indispensable condition, that an agreement should be entered into.’? — “ William said in Latin, Vade mecum, Go with me.”

But such

phrases, if they are used before nouns, or have been incorporated into the English language, should follow the common analogy; as,

“ John was elected pro-tempore Secretary.” — “ This was a sine-quanon business.’’ — “ That little book is an excellent vade-mecum.”’

For further information on this difficult subject, the reader is referred to

Mr. Goold Brown’s invaluable work, before quoted; from which, while venturing in some respects to differ in opinion, we have derived not a

little

assistance as to the nature of compounds, and the forms in which they should be presented.

But the subject is not exhausted; and he who, with the

scholarship and industry of that gentleman, will devote himself to the classification of all the compounds in the language, would perform a good service to a branch of literature which has been sadly neglected.

p. 232

219

DERIVATIVE WORDS. RULE

Prefixes in Derivative Words.

g I. If a prefix ends with a vowel, and the word

with which it is combined begins with a consonant; or

if the former ends with a consonant, and the latter begins with a vowel or a consonant, — the compound thus formed should appear as one unbroken word. -§ IL. If, however, the prefix ends, and the word to which it is united begins, with a vowel, — both vowels being separately pronounced,— they should be connected with a hyphen. EXAMPLES.

§ I.

4. Predetermine, resell, antedate. 2. Counteraction, multangular. 8 Supernatural, contemporaneous.

§ II.

1. Pre-occupy, re-echo, ante-act. 2. Contra-indication, retro-enter 8. Supra-orbital, co-eternal.

REMARKS.

a. When the prefix ends with a vowel, and is followed by a word beginning also with a vowel, many writers and printers place a dis-

resis over the latter, instead of a hyphen between them; as, coéval.

But this mode of exhibiting derivatives does not seem to accord with the genius of the English language, which, in ordinary compo-

sition, dispenses with accentual marks. It would, therefore, probably be better to reserve the use of the dizresis for words containing two vowels separately pronounced, but not capable of being divided, except for the purpose of syllabication and at the end of a line, by the hyphen; as in Beélzebub, and in borrowed foreign words b. The adverbs afore and fore, having now become almost obso-

lete as separate words, are regarded as mere prefixes; which should, therefore, without regard to accent, be subject to the present rule; as, aforegoing, foredetermined, fore-ordained. — See p. 208, Rem. b. c. As an exception to the first section of the rule, it is worthy of remark, that a derivative which might be mistaken for a word with the same letters, but a different meaning, should be distin-

p. 233

220

THE HYPHEN.

guished from it by the insertion of a hyphen between its parts. Thus, re-creation, denoting a new creation, is obviously a more appropriate form of this word than recreation, which, besides being differently pronounced, signifies refreshment, or relaxation after toil. Thus, also, a difference exists in meaning and pronunciation between

re-collect and recollect; re-form, re-formation, and reform, reformation ;

which it is necessary to exhibit in corresponding modes.

With the

exception of such words, the manner of writing derivatives having the prefix re is governed by the rule. d. Terms or epithets with prefixes of unusual occurrence, par-

ticularly if the compounds thus formed have two accents, should be excepted from the operation of the first branch of the rule; as, astro-theology, concavo-convex, deutero-canonical, electro-magnetism.

e. The prefixes of proper names, or words used as such, substan-

tively or adjectively, follow both sections of the rule; as, Antenicene, ; Antichrist, &c., Antitrinitarian, Pedobaptist, Cisalpine, Transatlantic Anti-American, Pre-Adamic. But the words Neo-Platonic, AngloSaxon, Scoto-Hibernian, and others of a similar kind, accord in theit forms with those referred to in Remark d.

f. Extra is sometimes used as an adjective, and separated from

the noun which it qualifies; as, extra pay, extra work. As a prefix in extraordinary, it is not followed by a hyphen, because its last letter (a), though coming before a vowel, is silent in pronunciation. g. The letter a, when by a colloquialism it represents one of the prepositions on, in, at, to, should be united, without a hyphen, to

the following word, if consisting of only one syllable; as, aboard, abed, afield, apiece. h. Bi and tri are usually consolidated with the words, or parts of

words, to which they are prefixed; as, biennial; triunity, triune. i. Vicegerency, vicegerent, viceroyal, and viceroyally are, in accordance with the rule, written each as one word. The other words, of which vice is a prefix, are, by almost universal custom, hyphened; as, vice-president, vice-chancellor, &c.

j. Bi, ante, anti, counter, contra, super, supra, semi, demt, preter,

and other common prefixes, are sometimes printed with a hyphen

after them; but there seem to be no just grounds for this division, except when two vowels would otherwise come together, or when a dissyllabic prefix ends with the same consonant with which the next

ter-revolution portion of a long word begins; as, anti-evangelical, To make any exceptions besides these, and a few others such as those noticed above, would lead to inextricable confusion.

p. 234

221

COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES. ORAL EXERCISES.

Show how the Rules and the Remarks (pp. 209-20) apply to the insertion of hyphens in certaim words, or to their omission in certain phrases, whioh . occur in the following sentences : —

Better be trampled in the dust than trample on a fellow-creature. Never put off fill to-morrow what you can do to-day. We have no doubt that instinct is a Heaven-ordained law. What the nations look for is a loving and life-giving religion. Keen-eyed revenge is riding round your ranks. When the wind-god frowns in the murky skies. O sailor-boy, sailor-boy! peace to thy soul! — He spoke no warrior-word, he bade no trumpet blow.

And soft-eyed cherub-forms around thee play. The most remarkable winds are those denominated the trade-winds. Many are the advantages of co-operation.

Self-abasement paved the way to villain bonds and despot sway. Like ocean-weeds heaped on the surf-beaten shore. Imagination is the truth-seeing and the beauty-seeing power. Ben Jonson, the great dramatist, was co-eval with Shakspeare

The silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed in value the

whole of the European and Asiatic mines.

Man possesses the great privilege of co-operating with his bene-

ficent Creator.

Philosophy will rise again in the sky of her Franklin, and glory

rekindle at the urn of her Washington.

There is little of the intellectual or moral in that sort of independ-

ence which is the proverbial characteristic of our countrymen.

Would that that noble people were re-instated in all their ancient

privileges!

The instincts of multitudes feel afar the gathering earthquake,

which is to swallow up caste, privileges, and unjust distinctions. Let your lately formed engagements be fulfilled with: perfect good faith.

The shrieks of agony and clang of arms re-echo to the fierce

alarms her trump terrific blows.

Illiterate and ill-bred persons are apt to be verbose, contradictory,

and loud in conversation.

There is a mother-heart in all children, as well as a child-heart

in all mothers.

p. 235

222

THE HYPHEN.

Nature cries aloud for freedom as our proper guide, our birthright, and our end.

Thousands of state-projects, on the vastest scale, have been con-

ceived, executed, and forgotten. Deep-hearted practical faithfulness is not separable long from

true-thoughted practical faith.

In the face of the young fop above mentioned was seen an impertinent smile of affectation.

They are but sluggards in well-doing who know to do good only when they have a purse in their hand.

If man could ascend to dwell at the fountainhead of truth, he would be re-absorbed in God.

In moments of clear, calm thought, I feel more for the wrong-doer than for him who is wronged. Edward the Sixth was a boy-king and a puppet-prince, invested

with supreme power, but acting without any volition of his own.

The term “ bridegroom,” strange as it seems, is given to a newly married man.

Education can hardly be too intellectual, unless by intellectual you mean parrot-knowledge, and other modes of mind-slaughter.

The churchyard bears an added stone; the fireside shows a vacant

chair.

Columbus was for years an all but heart-broken suitor to royal

stocks and stones.

Many who have worshipped within these walls are now in the

higher house, in the church of the First-born.

If any one affirms that the juxtaposition of a number of particles makes a hope, he affirms a proposition to which I can attach no idea.

In shipwrecks we are furnished with some of the most remarkable examples of trust in God, of unconquerable energy, and of tender, self-sacrificing love. The fair-weather sailor may equip himself tolerably from the storehouse of Epicurus; but stronger tackle will be needed when the masts are bending and the cordage straining in the storm.

A man of no feeling must necessarily be unhappy, since the texture of his heart affords him no superabundant sensibility for

the sufferings of his fellow-creatures.

You talk of the prosperity of your city.

thronged streets.

Do not point me to your

Is it a low-minded, self-seeking, gold-worshipping ;

man-despising crowd which I see rushing through them?

p. 236

223

COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

In this exercise, let the compound and derivative words be written agreeably to the two preceding Rules and the Remarks: —

Genius has no chartered license to wander away from the eternal

land marks of morality. (Bule I., § 11.) The selfish use rules as means of self indulgence, and the narrow minded over look the end in the means. (Rule L., §§ 1. and 11.) Every rail road, connecting distant regions, me be regarded as accomplishing a ministry of peace. (Rule I., § 11.)

Genius,in its highest Lan) cannot co exist with a corrupted

moral sentiment.

(Rule IL., § 1.)

The new moon silvered the lofty pines, and the stars twinkled

with rare brilliancy from their dark blue depths. (Rule L., § £-) He who has a good son in law has gained a son: he who has a bad one has lost a daughter. (Rule I., Remark 2 .)

What is religious instruction to the vain, the frivolous, the in different, the pre occupied and fore closed mind? (Rule II.) Is a woman ambitious to ply a black smith’s hammer, when she can wield so cunningly the thin, flitting sword of the spirit? tRule L., § 11.)

The distance of the earth from the sun is, in round numbers, one

hundred millions of miles; which.is, of course, the radius or semi diameter of its orbit.

(Rule II., § 1.)

Perhaps the sermons which have cost a clergy man the least effort may some times have the most effect on his hearers. (Rule L, § u.; and Remark 2 g.)

The ordinary processes of direct instruction are of immense importance; but they pre suppose in the mind to which they are applied an active co operation. (Rule IT., §§ 1. and 11.) As some instruments are tuned with a tuning fork, some dis-

courses seem to have been pitched with a pitch fork.

(Rule L,

Remark e 5, and § It.)

The faith of the first Christians expressed itself in vehement re action against the prevailing tendencies of an exceedingly cor| ropted civilization. (Rule IL, § 11.) He is gone on the mountain, he is lost to the forest, Like a summer dried fountain, when our need was the sorest: The fount, re appearing, from the rain drops shall borrow;

But to us comes no cheering, to Duncan no morrow. (Rule I., §1.; IL, §m.; 1., 0.)

p. 237

THE HYPHEN.

924

RULE

MU.

The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Pronunciation.

The hyphen is used between the syllables of a word,

to exhibit, as accurately as possible, its true pronunciation ; no regard being paid to the mode in which it has been formed or derived. EXAMPLES.

hab-it

ap-a-thy

as-tron-o-my

pref-ace trib-ute proph-et

pref-er-ence trin-i-ty po-lyg-a-my

an-tip-o-des bi-og-ra-pher rev-e-la-tion

REMARKS.

a, Asyllable is a combination of letters uttered by one impulse

of the voice; as had or ha in the word habit, according to the specific principle of syllabication which may be adopted. A single letter of a word, pronounced by itself, is also termed a syllable; as 4 or 0 in . the exclamation to ! 6. The mode of syllabication laid down in the rule is, unques-

tionably, the only one fitted for conveying the true sounds of words, or rather for making some approach to an accurate pronunciation; and all spelling-books should be constructed on this principle, —a principle which, though recommended by Dr. Lowth and adopted by lexicographers, has been neglected by some of our most popular writers of elementary works for children. It must, however, be — acknowledged, that many words are divided in the same manner, whether regard be had to their pronunciation, or to the mode in which they have been formed; as, horse-man, sa-cred, be-ing, na-tion, a-mend-ment; and that there are others, the true sounds of which cannot be correctly shown by any kind of syllabication, without a

change in the letters; such as the words acid, docile, ancient, specify,

digit, regisier.

c. The rule given above is adopted by American printers in the division of such words as cannot be entirely brought into one and the same line; but the rule which follows is generally preferred by

British typographers

p. 238

225

SYLLABICATION. RULE

IV.

The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Form, Derivation, or Meaning.

The hyphen is employed in words in such a manner as is best calculated to show their origin, composition, or import, and to exhibit the syllables in their neatest form. EXAMPLES.

ha-bit

a-pa-thy

as-tro-no-my

pro-phet

po-ly-ga-my

re-ve-la-tion

pre-face tri-bute

pre-fer-ence tri-ni-ty

an-ti-po-des bi-o-gra-pher

REMARKS,

a. Agreeably to this rule, and partially in accordance with that

which precedes it, —

1. Compound and derivative words are resolved into their primitives; as, school-master, hand-writing, pen-knife, snuff-boa, looking-glass; arch-angel, geo-logy, theo-cracy, ortho-graphy.

_-@, ~Prefixes, affixes, and grammatical terminations, are separated; as, dis-continue, en-able, trans-port; shear-er, load-ed, print-ing; king-dom, false-hood, differ-ence, command-ment.

3. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, are divided; as, la-rty, a-eri-al, re-al, stere-otype, vi-al, pi-ety, li-on, tri-umph, co-alesce, po-et,

medi-um, zo-ology, vow-el, cru-elty, vacu-um.

4. One consonant between two vowels is to be joined to the latter syllable; as, ta-lent, fa-tal ; me-lon, le-ver ; spi-rit, si-lence; cy-nic, ty-ro; le-ga-cy, mo-no-po-ly. Except 2, and single consonants when they belong to the former portion of a derivative word; as, ex-ile, exc-ist, ex-amine; up-on, dis-ease, circum-ambient.

5. Two or more consonants belong to the latter syllable, when they are capable of beginning a word; as, ta-ble, sti-fle, lu-cre, o-gle, mau-gre, stro-phe, de-stroy.

6. But when the consonants cannot begin a word, or when the vowel preceding them is short, the first should be separated; as. ab-bey, ac-cent, vel-lum, abject, gar-den, laun-dry, pam-phlet; sac-rifice, det-riment, blas-pheme, dis-tress, min-strel. 15

p. 239

226

THE HYPHEN.

5. It is desirable that compound and derivative words should, ai the ends of lines, be divided in such a manner as to indicate their principal parts.

Thus, school-master is preferable to schoolmaster,

dis-approve to disap-prove, resent-ment to re-sentment, ortho-doxy to or-thodoxy; though, as regards the analysis of words into syllables, the latter mode is unobjectionable. From the narrowness of the printed line, however, in some books, the principle recommended cannot always be adhered to.

c. The terminations don, sion, cial, tial, and many others, formerly pronounced as two syllables, but now only as one, must not be divided either in spelling or at the end of a line. .

d. A syllable consisting of only one letter, as the a in cre-ation,

should not commence a line.

This word would be better divided,

crea-tion ; and so all others of a similar kind.

But such a syllable, coming immediately after a primitive, is by some printers brought to the beginning; as, consider-able. é A line of print must not end with the first syllable of a word, when it consists of a single letter; as, a-bide, e-normous: nor begin with the last syllable, when it is formed of only two letters; as,

nation-al, teach-er, similar-ly. For regard should be had to the principles of taste and beauty, as well as to the laws of syllabication.

J. Three or more successive lines should not end with a hyphen. A little care on the part of the compositor will, in general, prevent an appearance so offensive to a good eye.

Divisions, indeed, except

for purposes of spelling and lexicography, should take place as seldom as possible.

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

Divide the following words agreeably ta both the preceding Rules; namely, according to their pronunciation, and according to their composition or derwwation : —

Habit, vivid, considerable, speculative, philosophy, modification, govern, individual, phenomenon, knowledge, elaborate, academical, progress, critical, vacuum, labyrinth, animal, physiology, revelation,

constituent, reciprocally, vigor, accredited, curiosity, magnificent, privacy, cherish, valuable, apology, idolater, equilibrium, solemn, separate, metaphysics, liberal, modern, preface, gratify, biography,

literature, nominal, philanthropy, theocracy, barometer, preparation,

figure, natural, prelude, clamor, reformation, metropolis, represent, recognize, rhetoric, diminish, articulate, peasant, antipodes, misory,

p. 240

SYLLABICATION.

227

recrimi.ate, floriferous, desolate, preference, dedicate, bibliopolist, eloquent, irregular, ventriloquist, memorable, reputation, doxology, conspiracy, general, desultory, contribute, omnivorous, typographer, oblivion, democracy, polygamy, citizen, stenography, parish, talent, melodist, borough, prisoner, promise, clever, metal, discrimination,

theology, cylinder, paradise, monitory, solitude, sycophant, nobility, cavalcade, rivulet, profitable, integrity, relative, jealous.

Insert the hyphen in those places only in which the division appears best at the end and the beginning of lines, according to the Remarks, p. 226: —

Philosophy, intermediate, theology, magnificence, venturesome,

biographer, questionable, lithography, professing, zoology, demigod, personate, widowhood, kaleidoscope, periphrasis, supervisor, geology, animation, abhorrence, government, tautology, permanent, classical, forgetfulness, superficial, congenial, circumstances, metamorphosis, subdivision, patronage, subordinate, beneficent, resistless, sufficient, superhuman, pantheism, disappointment, typographical, microscope,

disinterestedness, benevolence, superficial, contradiction, sensibility,

happiness, misanthropy, imperfect, circumference, counteracting, disproportionately, excitement, semicircle, predominate, artificial, portfolio, equilibrium, manufacture, preternatural, nomenclature, supernumerary, terraqueous, malefactor, primogeniture, resemble, suicide, transaction, intercept, education, counterfeit, superlative, ‘transgression, supernatural, predestinate, typography, polysyllable, introduction, confident, philology, sympathy, misinform, spiritless, provision, appearance, belonging, cleverness, uniform, outnumber, bedchamber, gardening, fishmonger, disrespectful, plenipotentiary, doctorship, neighborhood, bedlamite, nonconformity, nightingale, antediluvian, parsonage, correspond, forgetfulness, superabundant, metaphorically, hydrophobia, antitrinitarian, putrefaction, alteration, -haughtiness, semidiameter, improvement, proposition, serpentine, disjunction, intercourse, animalcule, bookselling, commonwealth, colloquial, reasoning, polyglot, puerility, correctness, understanding, preliminary, qualification, attaining, composition, commencement, incompetence, exclusive, disapprobation, adventure, introduction,

gentleman, trinity, acquaintance, consciousness, transubstantiation,

considering, persuasion, trigonometry, parallelogram, successfully, improper, diffidence, moreover, inference, hydrostatics, recollection, ameliorative, authorities, unwilling, autocrat, accelerate, emolument, carnivorous, emaciated.

p. 241

228

Secr. I.—MARKS OF QUOTATION.

Marks or Quotation

[ “ ” ] are employed to

show that the words of an author or a speaker are quoted.

These marks consist of two inverted commas

placed at the beginning, and two apostrophes at the

end, of a quotation. RULE

Words borrowed from a Speaker or an Author.

A word, phrase, or passage, belonging to another,

and introduced into one’s own composition, is distinguished by marks of quotation. EXAMPLE,

To one who said, “‘ I do not believe there is an honest man in the world,” another replied, “‘It is impossible that any one man should know all the world, but quite possible that one may know himself.” REMARKS.

a. When a writer repeats his own language, and wishes to draw to it particular attention, he properly uses the same marks as he

would employ were he transcribing the sentiments of another. Thus, if the author of the present work wished again to give directions on

the grammatical points usually required before extracts, he might,

instead of referring merely to page 108, copy from it the rule and certain comments, prefixing and appending the marks under notice, as follow: “ A short quotation, or any expression that resembles a quotation, is separated by.a comma from the clause which precedes

it.”

“If, however, quotations or remarks extend to two or more

p. 242

QUOTATIONS.

229

sentences, and are formally or specially introduced, a colon is preferable.” ‘‘ When an indirect quotation or a remark is preceded. by a very brief clause, the comma is not required.”

b. Marks of quotation may be omitted where the matter taken is

not g'ven in the exact words of the author; as, —

Socrates said that he believed in the immortality of the soul.

— In the direct form, the sentence would be correctly written thus: Socrates said, ‘I believe that the soul is immortal.”

c. It is usual to omit the quotation-marks when a mere phrase

or saying from a foreign language is distinguished by Italics; as, — Nil mortalibus arduum est is a bold but encouraging assertion.

d. In old works, it was a common practice to introduce all extracts from Scripture in Italic characters; but, except when there is a necessity for calling particular attention to certain words or expressions, authors now generally and very properly prefer using marks of quotation; as, —

One of the evangelists says, “ Jesus wept.”

e. Titles of books, and names of ships, &c., are sometimes written without the inverted commas, and put in Italic characters; as, “Falconer, the author of The Shipwreck, embarked on board the Aurora frigate in the year 1769, and was supposed to have perished with the vessel at sea.’? But, as Italics give an irregular look to a printed page, quotation-marks are preferable; as, —

- We may justly regard “ Paradise Lost”? as one of the noblest monuments

of human genius.

f. In speaking of certain words or phrases, some authors put

them in Italics. Others, however, prefer placing them within marks of quotation; and, for the reason given in Remark e, this is the more eligible mode of exhibiting them; as, —

We find the word “ pharisaical ? very useful in our modern speech.

g. When an example or an extract, particularly if in verse, is begun in a new line, and set in a smaller type, the marks of quotation are by some writers dispensed with. In cases, however, of this

kind, perhaps the generality of authors and printers use the inverted

commas and the apostrophes, agreeably to the rule; and this usage is recommended, except in works containing numerous quotations, which are well known to be such, as in the present book.

p. 243

230

MARKS OF QUOTATION.

RULE

IL.

One Quotation within another.

When one quotation is introduced within another, the included one should be preceded by a single inverted comma, and closed by a single apostrophe. EXAMPLES.

1. When treating of Christian orators, Maury asks the following apposite questions: “‘ What is this you call eloquence? imitating that criminal,

Is it the wretched trade of

tioned by a poet in his satires, who ‘ balanced his

crimes before his judges with antithesis’?

Is it the puerile secret of forming

jejune quibbles; of rounding periods; of tormenting one’s self by tedious studies, in order to reduce sacred instruction into a vain amusement? ”

2. In describing the vast influence of a perfect orator over the feelings and passions of his audience, Sheridan forcibly says, ‘‘ Notwithstanding the diversity of minds in such a multitude, by the lightning of eloquence they are melted into one mass; the whole assembly, actuated in one and the same

way, become, as it were, but one man, and have but one voice. The universal ery is, ‘Let us march against Philip; let us fight for our liberties; let us

conquer or die!’ ” REMARKS.

a. Double marks should be used before and after a quotation inserted in that which has been introduced into an extract; as,

“ Channing, the friend of humanity in every condition and under every garb, says, ‘When I consider the greater simplicity of their lives, and their greater openness to the spirit of Christianity, I am not sure but that the “ golden age’’ of manners is to begin among

those who are now despaired of for their want of refinement.’ ” b. Some writers and printers observe the following direction, in preference to the rule given in the text:

That a single inverted

comma should be prefixed to a single quotation occurring in composition, and

a single apostrophe annexed to it;

but that two

inverted commas should be introduced before, and two apostrophes after, another quotation occurring within the

primary one;

as,

‘There are times when the spirit, oppressed with pain, worn with toil, tired of tumult, sick at the sight of guilt, wounded in its love,

baffled in its hope, and trembling in its faith, almost longs for the

“wings of a dove, that it might fly away,” and take refuge amidst

p. 244

ONE QUOTATION WITHIN ANOTHER.

23]

~ the “shady bowers,’’ the “ vernal airs,” the “roses without thorns,” the quiet, the beauty, the loveliness, of Eden.’ But the great objection to this mode of setting off extracts is, that, by using single marks to the quotations which are of primary importance, and double to those which are merely secondary, we exhibit the former less prominently than the latter.

c. The marks under consideration may with propriety be omitted in some instances, where several quotations are so much involved

one within another, that the insertion of all the inverted commas and

the apostrophes would tend to obscure the meaning of the entire passage; as,-—

In the New Testament we have the following words: ‘Jesus answered the Jews, ‘Is it not written in your law, —I said, Ye are gods ?’”

By considering the example itself as an extract, there will be found

here no fewer than five quotations; and yet, though two only are set off with quotation-marks, the passage is perhaps more intelligible, and to the eye certainly less offensive, than if printed thus: ‘‘ In the New Testament we have the following words: ‘Jesus answered the Jews, “Ts it not written in your law,—‘I said,“ Ye are gods” ’?”’” Ridiculous as it may appear, this mode of exhibiting quotations is only the application of the principle contained in the rule, but car-

ried out beyond its legitimate purpose and extent.

d. Indeed, in quoting from such texts of Scripture as contain citations from other books of the sacred canon, it is usual to present them as they appear in the Common Version, — without any quotation-marks in the body of the passage; as, —

St. Pau! thus expresses himself: ‘‘ Therein is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith; as it is written, The just shall live by faith. For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness, and unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness.” In another — place the apostle says, ‘“‘ David also describeth the blessedness of the man unto whom God imputeth righteousness without works, saying, Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven, and whose sins are covered. Blessed is the man to whom the Lord will not impute sin. Cometh this blessedness, then, upon the circumcision only?” &c.

But the exhibiting of a quotation within a quotation without the

inverted commas, though more pleasing to the eye, is less accurate, than it would be if they were used in a single form, as in the passage above, lines six and seven of Remark c. e. See page 156, Remark ; and page 161, Remark e.

p. 245

282

MARKS OF QUOTATION.

RULE

IU.

Extracts composed of Successive Paragraphs.

When an extract is composed otf successive paragraphs, each is commenced with inverted commas; but the apostrophes are not used till the quotation finally terminates. EXAMPLE.

To exemplify this rule, a passage, consisting of more than one paragraph,

may be taken from an essay by Godwin: — “(No subject is of more importance, in the morality of private life, than that of domestic or family life.

‘‘ Hvery man has his ill humors, his fits of peevishness and exacerbation.

Is it better that he should spend these upon his fellow-beings, or suffer them to subside of themselves? “Tt seems to be one of the most important of the arts of life, that men should not come too near each other, or touch in too many points. Excessive familiarity is the bane of social happiness.” REMARKS.

a. When phrases or sentences in an extract consist of portions

not connected in the discourse or book from which they have been taken, each portion should begin and end with the quotation-marks, as in those cited on p. 228, Remark a; unless several points (....)

are inserted to indicate the omission, in which case it will be suf-

ficient to put the marks of quotation at the beginning and the end of the whole extract, if it is contained in one paragraph.

6. In the leading articles of newspapers, and sometimes in books, when particular attention would be drawn to an extract embodied

in the text, the inverted commas are placed at the beginning of each line of the quotation; as,’ Slavery must fall, because it stands in

“ direct hostility to all the grand movements, principles, and reforms “of our age; because it stands in the way of an advancing world.

“ One great idea stands out amidst the discoveries and improvements “of modern times.

It is, that man is not to exercise arbitrary,

“ irresponsible power over man.”

But, except in the more transient

class of publications, this mode of exhibiting extracts is now seldom used.

p. 246

QUOTATIONS.

233

ORAL EXERCISE.

Show how the Rules and the Remarks (pp. 228-80) apply te the use or omission of quotation-marks in the following sentences :—

The psalmist says again, “I am a stranger with thee and a sojourner, as all my fathers were.” When Fénélon’s library was on fire, “ God be praised,’’ said he, “ that it is not the dwelling of a poor man!” I repeat what I said on a former occasion, that “no man can be

happy who is destitute of good feelings and generous principles.”

“There is but one object,” says St. Augustine, “ greater than the soul; and that one is its Creator.’’ Plato, hearing that some asserted he was a very bad man, said,

‘*T shall take care so to live that nobody will believe them.” “Let me make the ballads ofa nation,” said Fletcher of Saltoun, “and I care not who makes its laws.” “Any man,” it. has been well said, “ who has a proneness to see

a beauty and fitness in all God’s works, may find daily food for his mind even in an infant.”

A minister of some experience remarks, “I have heard more than one sufferer say, ‘I am thankful; God is good to me;’ and, when

I heard that, I said, ‘ It is good to be afflicted.’ ” The celebrated and ingenious Bishop of Cloyne, in his “ Principles

of Human Knowledge,” denies, without any ceremony, the existence of every kind of matter whatever.

After Cicero, the literary history of the Romans iis writtenin one

line of Tacitus, Gliscente adulatione, magna ingenia deterrebantur ; ‘“‘ As adulation increased, great minds were deterred.”

A being crowned with all the blessings which men covet and admire,— with youth, health, beauty, rank, genius, and fame, ~

writes four cantos of melodious verse to prove that he is the most miserable of mortals.

Trench well says, ‘ What a lesson the word § diligence’ contains!

How profitable is it for every one of us to be reminded, — as we are > reminded when we make ourselves aware of its derivation from diligo, ‘to love,’ — that the only secret of true industry in our work is love

of that work!” To the man who walks among the flowers which he has tended, — “* Fach odoriferous leaf, Each opening blossom, freely breathes abroad Jts gratitude, and thanks him with its sweets.”

p. 247

234

MARKS OF QUOTATION. EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN.

Ansert the marks of quotation agreeably to some of the directions given in pp. 228-82.

Johnson’s Lives of the English Poets may justly be considered as the noblest specimen of elegant and solid criticism which any (Rule I. and Remark e.)

age has produced.

Terrific examples of license and anarchy in Greece and Rome

are quoted to prove, that man requires to be protected from himself;

forgetting the profound wisdom wrapped up in the familiar inquiry,

Quis custodiet ipsos custodes? Who shall guard the keepers?

(Rule I.

and Remark c.) An eloquent preacher asks, Who would not far prefer our wintry

storm, and the hoarse sighings of the east wind, as it sweeps around

us, if they will brace the mind to nobler attainments, and the heart to better duties? _

[The author of this passage quotes the phrase,

“the hoarse sighings of the east wind.”’]

(Rule II.)

What is the soul? was a question once put to Marivaux. —I know nothing of it, he answered, but that it is spiritual and immortal. ~

Well, said his friend, let us ask Fontenelle, and he will tell us what it is. — No, cried Marivaux: ask anybody but Fontenelle; for he has too much good sense to know any more about it than we do.

(Rule I.)

D’ Alembert congratulated a young man very coldly, who brought

him the solution of a problem.

I have done this to have a seat in

the Academy, said the young man.— Sir, answered D’Alembert, with such motives you will never earn one.

Science must be loved

for its own sake, and not for the advantage to be derived. principle will enable a man to make true progress.

No other

(Rule I.)

The following sarcastic rules for behavior are said by Goldsmith to have been drawn up by an indigent philosopher: — 1. If you be a rich man, you may enter the room with three

Joud hems, march deliberately up to the chimney, and turn your

back to the fire. 2. If you be a poor man, I would advise you to shrink into the

room as fast as you can, and place yourself, as usual, upon a corner of a chair, in a remote corner.

3. If you be young, and live with an old man, I would advise you not to like gravy.

(Rule II.)

I was disinherited myself for liking gravy.

p. 248

230

CHAPTER V.

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS AND CHARACTERS.

Iw addition to the sentential points and marks treated of in the preceding pages, there are other characters, sometimes occurring in English composition, which will now be explained.

I. Brackets, or Crotcuets [ ], are employed for the same purpose nearly as the marks of parenthesis; but they are usually confined to words, phrases, or ‘sentences, inserted in or appended to a quotation, and not belonging to it; as, “The captain had several men

died [who died] in the ship.” Brackets are chiefly intended to give an explanation, to rectify a mistake, or to supply an omission. But they are also sometimes used in dictionaries and in poetry to separate such words as are put, for the saving of room, into lines to which they do not belong;

and in psalms and hymns to include verses that may be omitted by

a congregation. They are used, besides, in a single form, in printed

dramas, to note the entrance or the departure of certain characters; as, “ [ Hxeunt Portia and Nerissa.”

Marks of parenthesis and the brackets are often employed indiscriminately; but the following rule, from Parker’s “ Exercises in Rhetorical Reading,” will aid the pupil in distinguishing the differ~

ence as to their application: “ Crotchets [the writer means marks of

parenthesis] are used to enclose a sentence, or part of a sentence,

p. 249

236

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS.

which is inserted between the parts of another sentence: brackets

are generally used to separate two subjects, or to enclose an explanation, note, or observation, standing by itself.”

The grammatical punctuation of the words or sentences enclosed by brackets, and of the context, when they require such pointing,

should be the same as that adopted in respect to the parenthesis, and to the clauses between which it is inserted. — See pp. 168-70. Dashes are sometimes used, one before the first bracket, and

another after the second, to lead the eye from the preceding portion

of the main sentence to the latter.

They may with propriety be

introduced in such passages as the following: “I know the banker I deal with, or the physician I usually call in, — [‘ There is no need,’ cried Dr. Slop (waking), ‘to call in any physician in this case.’}] — to be neither of them men of much religion.”

II. A Comma Invertep [ ‘ ] is sometimes used

instead of a very small ec, in many proper names beginning with Mac; as, M‘Donald, the abbreviation

of Macdonald. This mark seems to be getting out of use; authors and printers now generally preferring the c, either on or above the line, as in

McKenzie, McFarlane.

The same mark is sometimes annexed to the letter O in proper names; as, O‘Neil: but an apostrophe is more frequently used, and is more correct; as, 0’ Neil.

III. Two Commas [,, | are occasionally employed to indicate that something is understood which was expressed in the line and word immediately above; as, — John Jones, Esq.

John Smith,

.*.

«©

Esq.

«+

Plymouth. ”

By many printers the commas are inverted [thus, “]; but the

mode of using them here presented, which was once very common, is a more exact imitation of handwriting.

Names of different persons, though spelled in the same way, — aa the word “ John” in the preceding lines, — are commonly repeated.

p. 250

237

THE INDEX, BRACE, ETC. A

IV. The Inpex, or Hanp, points out a passage to

which special attention is directed; as, “

All orders

will be promptly and carefully attended to.”

V. Turee Stars, placed in this form [*,*], or N.B., the initials of nota bene, “mark well,” are some‘times used for the same purposes as the index. The characters explained in the two preceding paragraphs are employed chiefly in cards, handbills, advertisements, and catalogues; seldom in books.

VI. The Caret [ a ] is used, only in manuscript, to show where a letter or a word was accidentally omitted, but which has afterwards been placed over the line; as, — p

are

Disapointments and trials often blessings in disguise.

VII. The Brace [~~] is used to connect a

number of words with one common term; as, —

3 feet meee]

8 barleycorns 12 inches. .

are equal to

}3 ot |

1 inch {1 foot } long measure.

This character is often found serviceable in lists of articles and in tabular matter, where the object is to save room, or to avoid repetition. The inside of a brace should, as in the example, be turned to that part of the matter which contains most lines. The brace was once generally used to bind together a triplet, or three lines of poetry having the same rhyme; but this practice. is becoming obsolete.

A brace is sometimes put in the side-margin of a page tto separate

dates, when placed there, from the text.

p. 251

238

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS.

VIII. Marxs or Exuresis are formed by means

of a long dash, or of a succession of points or stars

[

pee ee,

*** * 1), of various lengths; and are

used to indicate the omission of letters in a word, of

words in a sentence, or of sentences in a paragraph ; as, —

1.¢

8 is not uniformly distinguished for dignity, wisdom, patriotism

or philanthropy.

2. If the great have no other glory than that of their ancestors ; if their titles are their only virtues, .... their birth dishonors them, even in the

estimation of the world.

3. Some persons believe that there are no longer any duties to be fulfilled

beyond the tomb; and there are but few who know how to be friends to the

dead. * * * * * * * % The name of our friends, their glory, their family, have still claims on our affection, which it would be guilt not to feel.

They should live still in our heart by the emotions which subsist there ; in our memory, by our frequent remembrance of them; in our voice, by our

eulogiums ; in our conduct, by our imitation of their virtues.

In the first example, “ C s”’ is substituted for Congress; in the second, a single clause is omitted; and, in the third, several sentences are left out by the transcriber. Periods are considered much less offensive to the eye than asterisks.

. To avoid repetitions in catalogues, a dash is sometimes used instead of the word or words immediately above; as, — Pope’s Works, with Notes and Ilustrations, 6 vols. calf. Rape of the Lock, and other Poems.

For other elliptical uses of the dash, see pp. 175, 191, and 195.

TX. Leavers are dots or periods, used in contents

and indexes of books, and in similar matter, to lead the eye to the end of a line, for the completion of the sense;

as, — Page.

Comma

Semicolon Colon

.......4.+.2.2.2..

Period.

ww.

B10

142

ee,

Lee

p. 252

ACCENTS AND OTHER MARKS.

239

X. Accents. — There are three marks, termed Accents, placed over the vowels; namely, the Acute

[ ’ ], as in fancy; the Grave [°* ], as in favor; and

the Circumflex [ * ], as in fall. The acute accent commonly represents a sharp, the grave a depressed, and the circumflex a broad sound. The grave accent is sometimes placed in verse over the vowel 6, to show that it must be fully pronounced; as, cankeréd, Dircé. See p. 199, Remark g..

These characters are also used to denote the inflections of the voice, according to the system invented by Walker; and for various purposes in the Latin, French, and other languages.

XI.

Marxs or Quantity. — There are other

three marks, indicating the pronunciation, which are

sometimes classed among the accents; namely, the

Long [ ~ ], as in résy; the Breve, or Short [ ~ ], as in folly; and the Dizresis [ ~ ], as in aérial. The diwresis is usually placed over the latter of two vowels, and

denotes that they are to be pronounced separately.

XII. The Cepiixa is a mark resembling a comma,

placed under the letter ¢, when it has the sound of

s before a or 0, in words taken from the French; as, facade.

XIII. Tue Trtpe [ ~ ] is an accentual mark, placed

over n in Spanish to give that letter a liquid sound; as, senor, sir.

If great accuracy is required, all such words should be thus printed

when occurring in English composition.

p. 253

240

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS.

XIV. Marxs or Rererence. — The Asterisk, or

_ Star [ * J, the Obelisk, or Dagger [ f ], the Double Dagger [ | ], the Section [ § ], Parallel Lines [ || ], and the Paragraph [ { ], are used, in the order here presented, when references are made to observations

or notes in the margin. When references are numerous, the above marks, when they have been all used in one and the same page, and others are required, should be doubled or trebled; as, *¥*, tft.

But, for purposes of reference, many authors prefer lowercase

Italic letters or Arabic figures, enclosed by marks of parenthesis (a) or (1): some using the letters throughout the alphabet, or the

figures as far as 10 or 100 inclusive, then beginning again with (a) or (1); and others commencing each page with the first letter or figure.

As, however, all the above marks have a rather clumsy appearance, particularly when they often occur in the same page, it has,

in more recent times, been regarded as an improvement to use, in their order, letters or figures of a smaller size, technically called,

from their standing above the line, Superiors; as,@ or!.

If the notes

are placed in the margin, it is recommended that the letter @ or

figure ! be the first reference of every page in which notes occur; but that figures, and not letters, be employed in regular succession, as far

as required, if the notes are introduced at the end of the volume. The ASTERISK is used in some dictionaries to note, either that a word is of Greek origin, or is distinguished by some other peculiarity; and the OBELISK, that a word or phrase is barbarous or

obsolete.

In Roman-Catholic church-books, the asterisk is used to

_ divide each verse of a psalm into two parts, showing where the responses begin.

The obelisk is inserted, instead of the proper

square cross, in those places of the printed prayers and benedictions

where the priest is to make the sign of the cross.

It is also used in

the briefs of the pope, and in the mandates of archbishops and bishops, who put this symbol immediately before the signature of their names. The mark termed the Srcrion [ § ] is sometimes employed, as in

Locke’s “ Essay on the Human Understanding,” to divide books or

chapters into smaller portions; and that called the PaRaGRapH [ J } occurs frequently in the authorized version of the Bible.

p. 254

241

CHAPTER VI. GENERAL

EXERCISES,

PUNCTUATED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN IN THE ‘PRESENT WORK.

Tue following Exercises are presented in the hope, that they will be not only perused as a source of pleasure and general improvement, but also studied with

relation to the art which they are meant to exemplify.

This can be done in one of two ways: The reader may, in passing from one sentence to another, assign, either mentally or to a teacher, the reasons for the punctuation adopted, by referring to the rules or the remarks which are laid down in the preceding pages as applicable to each separate case. Or he may write out the exercises, one at a time, without any points whatever; and, in the course of a day or two, take his transcribed copy, and, without aid from the book, insert such marks as he thinks will best exhibit the grammatical structure of the composition, the connections or relations subsisting between the various parts of its sentences, and the sense which the author

intended to express. He may then compare his manuscript with the print, in order to ascertain in what respects they correspond or differ; introducing the 16

p. 255

GENERAL EXERCISES.

242

points which he has omitted, or rectifying the errors he has made.

If the defects or mistakes are numerous,

he should carefully transcribe the exercise a second ' time.

The Index, at the end of the book, will enable the pupil, when his memory fails him, to discover any particular rule or remark to which he may have occasion to refer.

I.— PRIDE AND HUMILITY.

Pride and humility are always relative terms. They imply a comparison of some sort with an object higher or lower; and the same mind, with actual excellence exactly the same, and with the same comparative attainments in every one around, may thus be either proud or humble, as it looks above or looks beneath. In the great scale of society, there is a continued rise from one excel lence to another excellence, internal or external, intellectual or moral. Wherever we may fix, there is still some one whom we may find superior or inferior; and these relations are mutually convertible as we ascend or descend. The shrub is taller than the flower which grows in its shade; the tree, than the shrub; the rock, than the tree; the mountain, than the single rock; and above all are the sun and the heavens. It is the same in the world of life. From that Almighty Being who is the Source of all life, to the lowest of his creatures, what innumerable gradations may be traced, even in the ranks of excellence on our own earth! each being higher than that beneath, and lower than that above; and thus, all to all, objects at once of pride or humility, according as the comparison may be made with the greater or with the less.

Of two minds, then, possessing equal excellence, which is the more noble, — that which, however high the excellence attained by it, has still some nobler excellence in view, to which it feels its own

inferiority; or that which, having risen a few steps in the ascent of intellectual and moral glory, thinks only of those beneath, and rojoices in an excellence which would appear to it of little value if

p. 256

PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED.

243

only it lifted a single glance to the perfection above? Yet this habitual tendency to 100k beneath, rather than above, is the character of mind which is denominated “ pride;’? while the tendency to look above, rather than below, and to feel an inferiority, therefore, which others perhaps do not perceive, is the character which is denominated “humility.” Is it false, then, or even extravagant, to say that humility is truly the nobler; and that pride, which delights in the contemplation of abject objects beneath, is truly in itself more abject than that meekness of heart which is humble because it has greater objects, and which looks with reverence to the excellence that is above it, because it is formed with a capacity of feeling all the worth of that excellence which it reveres? . . . The accomplished philosopher and man of letters, to whom the great names of all who have been eminent in ancient and modern times, in all the nations in which the race of man has risen to glory, are familiar, almost like the names of those with whom he is living

— who, has thus constantly before his mind images of in society excellence of the highest order, and who, even in the hopes which he dares to form, feels how small a contribution it will be in his power to add to the great imperishable stock of human wisdom, — may be proud indeed; but his pride will be of a sort that is tempered with humility, and will be humility itself if compared with the pride of a pedant or sciolist, who thinks, that, in adding the result of some little discovery which he may have fortunately made, he is almost doubling that mass of knowledge in which it is scarcely perceived as an element.

Pride, then, as a character of self-complacent exultation, is not the prevailing cast of mind of those who are formed for genuine excellence. He who is formed for genuine excellence has before him an ideal perfection, — that semper melius aliquid, — which makes excellence itself, however admirable to those who measure it only with their weaker powers, seem to his own mind, as compared with what he has ever in his own mental vision, a sort of failure. He thinks less of what he has done than of what it seems possible to do; and he is not so much proud of merit attained, as desirous of a

merit that has not yet been attained by him.

It is in this way that the very religion which ennobles man leads him, not to pride, but to humility. It elevates him from the smoke and dust of earth; but it elevates him above the darkness, that he may see better the great heights that are above him. It shows him, not the mere excellence of a few frail creatures, as fallible as him-

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GENERAL EXERCISES.

self, but excellence, the very conception of which is the highest effort that can be made by man: exhibiting thus constantly what it will be the only honor worthy of his nature to imitate, however

faintly; and checking his momentary pride, at every step of his glorious progress, by the brightness and the vastness of what is still

before him.

May I not add to these remarks, that it is in this way we are to account for that humility which is so peculiarly a part of the Christian character, as contrasted with the general pride which other

systems either recommend or allow?

The Christian religion is,

indeed, as has been often sarcastically said by those who revile it, the religion of the humble in heart; but it is the religion of the humble, only because it presents to our contemplation a higher excellence than was ever before exhibited to man.

The proud look

down upon the earth, and see nothing that creeps upon its surface more noble than themselves: the humble look upward to their God.

THomas Brown. ee

Il, — ABOU BEN ADHEM.

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase!) Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, And saw within the moonlight of his room,

Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, An angel writing in a book of gold.

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold; And to the presence in the room he said,

“What writest thon?’?

The vision raised its head,

And, with a look made of all sweet accord, Answered, ‘‘ The names of those who love the Lord.” “‘ And is mine one?’’ asked Abou.

“ Nay, not so,”

Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low,

But cheerly still; and said, “I pray thee, then, Write me as one that loves his fellow-men.”

The angel wrote, and vanished.

The next night

It came again, with a great wakening light,

And showed the names whom love of God had blest;

And, lo! Ben Adhem’s name led all the rest. Lrerean Hunt.

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PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED.

245

Ill. —PANEGYRIC ON ENGLAND. No character is perfect among nations, more than arnong men;

but it must needs be conceded, that, of all the states of Europe, England has been, from an early period, the most favored abode of

liberty; the only part of Europe, where, for any length of time, constitutional liberty can be said to have a stable existence.

can scarcely contemplate with patience the idea, that we might have

been a Spanish colony, a Portuguese colony, or a Dutch colony. We can scarcely compare with coolness the inheritance which was transmitted to us by our fathers, with that which we must have received from almost any other country,— absolute government, military

despotism, and the “ holy inquisition.’’.... What hope can there be

for the colonies of nations which possess themselves no spring of

improvement, and tolerate none in the regions over which they rule; whose administration sets no bright examples of parliamentary inde-

pendence; whose languages send out no reviving lessons of sound and practical science, ... of manly literature, of sound philosophy; but

repeat, with every ship that crosses the Atlantic, the same debasing

voice of despotism, bigotry, and antiquated superstition? What citizen of our republic is not grateful, in the contrast which our history presents?

Who does not feel, what reflecting American

does not acknowledge, the incalculable advantages derived to this — land out of the deep fountains of civil, intellectual, and moral truth, from which we have drawn in England?

What American does not

feel proud that his fathers were the countrymen of Bacon, of Newton, and of Locke?

Who does not know, that, while every pulse of civil

liberty in the heart of the British empire beat warm and full in the

bosom of our ancestors, the sobriety, the firmness, and the dignity,

with which the cause of free principles struggled into existence here,

constantly found encouragement and countenance from the friends of liberty there?

Who does not remember, that, when the Pilgrims

went over the sea, the prayers of the faithful British confessors, in all the quarters of their dispersion, went over with them, while their

aching eyes were strained till the star of hope should go up in the western skies?

And who will ever forget, that, in that eventful

struggle which severed these youthful republics from the British crown, there was not heard, throughout our continent in arms, a

voice which spoke louder for the rights of America, than that of Burke or of Chatham within the walls of the British Parliament,

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GENERAL EXERCISES.

and at the foot of the British throne?

No: for myself, I can truly

say, that, after my native land, I feel a tenderness and a reverence for that of my fathers.

The pride I take in my own country makes

me respect that from which we are sprung.

In touching the soil of

England, I seem to return, like a descendant, to the old family seat; to come back to the abode of an aged and venerable parent.

acknowledge this great consanguinity of nations.

The sound of my

native language, beyond the sea, is a music to my ear, beyond the

richest strains of Tuscan softness or Castilian majesty.

I am not

yet in a land of strangers, while surrounded by the manners, the habits, and the institutions under which I have been brought up.

wander delighted through a thousand scenes, which the historians and the poets have made familiar to us, of which the names are interwoven with our earliest associations.

I tread with reverence the spots

where I can retrace the footsteps of our suffering fathers: the pleasant land of their birth has a claim on my heart.

It seems to mea

- Classic, yea, a holy land; rich in the memory of the great and good, the champions and the martyrs of liberty, the exiled heralds of truth;

and richer as the parent of this land of promise in the West.

Iam not —I need not say I am not — the panegyrist of England.

Tam not dazzled by her riches, nor awed by her power. The sceptre, the mitre, and the coronet, — stars, garters, and blue ribbons, to me poor things for great men to contend for.

— seem

Nor is my adimira~-

tion awakened by her armies mustered for the battles of Europe, her

navies overshadowing the ocean, nor her empire grasping the farthest

East.

It is these, and the price of guilt and blood by which they are

soo often maintained, which are the cause why no friend of liberty can salute her with undivided affections.

But it is the cradle and

the refuge of free principles, though often persecuted; the school of

religious liberty, the more precious for the struggles through which

it has passed; the tombs of those who have reflected honor on all who speak the English tongue; it is the birthplace of our fathers, the home of the Pilgrims, — it is these which I love and venerate in

England.

I should feel ashamed of an enthusiasm for Italy and

Greece, did I not also feel it for a land like this.

In an American, it

would seem to me degenerate and ungrateful to hang with passion upon the traces of Homer and Virgil, and follow without emotion the nearer and plainer footsteps of Shakspeare and Milton.

I should

think him cold in his love for his native land who felt no melting in

his heart for that other native country which holds the ashes of his

forefathers.

Epwarp EVERET?Y.

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PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED.

247

THE PEN AND THE PRESS. — IV.

Young Genius walked out by the mountains and streams, Entranced by the power of his own pleasant dreams, Till the silent, the wayward, the wandering thing Found a plume that had fallen from a passing bird’s wing : Exulting and proud, like a boy at his play, He bore the new prize to his dwelling away;

He gazed for a while on its beauties, and then He cut it, and shaped it, and called it a PEN. But its magical use he discovered not yet,

Till he dipped its bright lips in a fountain of jet; And, oh! what a glorious thing it became! For it spoke to the world in a language of flame; While its master wrote on, like a being inspired, Till the hearts of the millions were melted or fired:

It came as a boon and a blessing to men, — The peaceful, the pure, the victorious Pen.

Young Genius went forth on his rambles once more, The vast, sunless caverns of earth to explore; He searched the rude rock, and with rapture he found

A substance unknown, which he brought from the ground; He fused it with fire, and rejoiced at the change,

~ As he moulded the ore into characters strange,

Till his thoughts and his efforts were crowned with success, For an engine uprose, and he called it the Press.

The Pen and the Press, blest alliance! combined To soften the heart, and enlighten the mind; For that to the treasures of knowledge gave birth, And this sent them forth to the ends of the earth: Their battles for truth were triumphant indeed, | And the rod of the tyrant was snapped like a reed;

They were made to exalt us, to teach us, to bless, Those invincible brothers, — the Pen and the Press. _ JOHN CRITCHLEY PRINCE.

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GENERAL EXERCISES.

V.—A TASTE FOR READING. We cannot linger in the beautiful creations of inventive genius,

or pursue the splendid discoveries of modern science, without a new sense of the capacities and dignity of human nature, which natu-

rally leads to a sterner self-respect, to manlier resolves and higher aspirations.

We cannot read the ways of God to man as revealed

in the history of, nations, of sublime virtues as exemplified in the lives of great and good men, without falling into

that mood of

thoughtful admiration, which, though it be but a transient glow, is a

purifying and elevating influence while it lasts.

The study of his-

tory is especially valuable as an antidote to self-exaggeration. teaches lessons of humility, patience, and submission.

When we

read of realms smitten with the scourge of famine or pestilence, or strewn with the bloody ashes of war ; of grass growing in the streets

of great cities ; of ships rotting at the wharves ; of fathers burying their sons; of strong men begging their bread ; of fields untilled, and silent workshops, and despairing countenances,-— we hear a

voice of rebuke to our own clamorous sorrows and peevish complaints.

We learn that pain and suffering and disappointment are

a part of God’s providence, and that no contract was ever yet made with man by which virtue should secure to him temporal happiness.

In books, be it remembered, we have the best products of the best minds.

We should any of us. esteem it a great privilege to pass

an evening with Shakspeare or Bacon, were such a thing possible. But, were we admitted to the presence of one of these illustrious

men, we might find him touched with infirmity, or oppressed with weariness, or darkened with the

shadow of a recent trouble, or

absorbed by intrusive and tyrannous thoughts. might be dumb, and the light

eclipsed.

To us the oracle

But, when we take down

one of their volumes, we run no such risk.

Here we have their

best thoughts, embalmed in their best words; immortal flowers of poetry, wet with Castalian dews, and the golden fruit of wisdom

that had long ripened on the bough before it was gathered.

Here

we find the growth of the choicest seasons of the mind, when mortal

cares were forgotten, and mortal weaknesses were subdued ; and the

soul, stripped of its vanities and its passions, lay bare to the finest effluences of truth and beauty.

We may be sure that Shakspeare

never out-talked his Hamlet, nor Bacon his Essays.

Great writers

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PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. are indeed best known through their books.

249

How little, for instance,

do we know of the life of Shakspeare; but how much do we know

of him!

For the knowledge that comes from books, I would claim no more

than it is fairly entitled to.

Iam well aware that there is no inevi-

table connection between intellectual cultivation, on the one hand, and individual virtue or social well-being, on the other. of knowledge is not the tree of life.”

“ The tree

I admit that genius and learn-

ing are sometimes found in combination with gross vices, and not unfrequently with contemptible weaknesses; and that a community at once cultivated and corrupt is no impossible monster.

But it is

no overstatement to say, that, other things being equal, the man who has the greatest amouut of intellectual resources is in the least danger from inferior temptations, —if for no other reason, because

he has fewer idle moments.

vacant hour.

The ruin of most men dates from some

Occupation is the armor of the soul; and the train

of Idleness is borne up by all the vices.

I remember a

satirical

poem, in which the Devil is represented as fishing for men, and

adapting his baits to the taste and temperament of his prey; but the

idler, he said, pleased him most, because he bit the naked hook.

@ young man away from home, friendless and forlorn in a great city,

the hours of peril are those between sunset and bedtime; for the moon and stars see more of evil in a single hour than the sun in his whole day’s circuit.

The poet’s visions of evening are all compact

of tender and soothing images.

It brings the wanderer to his home,

the child to his mother’s arms, the ox to his stall, and the weary laborer to his rest.

But to the gentle-hearted youth who is thrown

upon the rocks of a pitiless city, and stands “homeless amid a thou-

sand homes,” the approach of evening brings with it an aching sense of loneliness and desolation, which comes down upon the spirit like

darkness upon the earth.

In this mood, his best impulses become a

snare to him; and he is led astray because he is social, affectionate, sympathetic, and warm-hearted.

If there be a young man thus

circumstanced, within the sound of my voice, let me say to him, that books are the frienda of the friendless, and that a library is the home

of the homeless.

A taste for reading will always carry you into the

best possible company, and enable you to converse with men who will instruct you by their wisdom, and charm you by their wits

who will soothe you when fretted, refresh you when weary, counsel you when perplexed, and sympathize with you at all times. GroRGE S. Hittarp

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GENERAL EXERCISES.

VI. — RELATIVE PERFECTION.

There is a relative, as well as a more general, perfection in man, which must not be lost sight of in examining the question of his proper vocation in life.

There is required of him, not only a culture of his whole being as a man, but also a diligent and faithful adaptation of certain of his powers to the particular circumstances in which he is placed. Life’s purpose is only adequately accomplished in discharging both these claims; and, indeed, the more limited service is a necessary condition of the general development. You find yourself, then, occupying a given position in the world. It has its appointed duties, its special opportunities of usefulness, trials also, difficulties and temptations of its own. Take your lot as it is assigned you, without murmuring. Make the best of it; and, if in the eyes of men it seems unhonored and unenviable, ennoble it by ~ your own spirit, and work your way through it, by character and honest industry, to something better and happier. If, on the other hand, you find it accord with your inclination, and open before you a fair prospect of worldly advancement, be assured there is nothing

irreligious in honorably aiming at success and eminence in it, and still less in openly avowing that such is your object.

Every pursuit

which conduces to the welfare of the world has its appropriate

honor attending it; and a genuine virtue is developed by enthusiasm for what is highest in our own line of action. You may treat life as a problem, which has to be wrought out to a successful result, with certain moral conditions attached to it. Do not, because it looks difficult, timorously shrink from attempting the solution; but work through every part of it, whether you get the whole result or not,

without violating one of its moral conditions.

Draw the utmost

from it that it will yield for temporal prosperity, for social weight and position, for honor, usefulness, mental culture, and refined en-

joyment, consistently with the strictest integrity, with health and the exercise of the affections, with a remembrance of the end of life and a cheerful submission to the divine will. Whatever your vocation in life,— whether you labor with the head or with the hand; whether you write books, or manufacture cloth; whether your ships cross every sea, or your whole stock in trade is contained

within the four walls of your humble shop; whether you sit on the bench of justice, or earn your honest wages from week to week, — honcr your work as assigned you by God, who regards not its

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PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED.

subject-matter, but the spirit in which it is performed; and, as in his sight, with a loyal and devoted heart, strive to be outdone by no

one in the completeness and efficiency of its execution. This is the healthy view of our human world. Contentment, comfort, abundance, depend on its wide diffusion. It would put

every one in his proper place, and fit him with his proper task. It would let none be idle, and leave none in want. It would abolish useless privilege, and bring all under the constraint of wholesome duty. This view reconciles earth and heaven. While we are in the

world, it makes us, in the best of senses, friends with the world, but not less fitted for heaven when we pass away. It is also the honest and sincere view. Thousands who disown it act upon it; and nore more so, and with a keener eye even to selfish advancement,

than some who put forth an exclusive claim to the religious character. Such is the course of action which contributes to relative perfection, by linking our individual lives through specific duties with the general well-being of the world. —

JoHN JAMES TAYLER.

VIL. — LABOR NOT LOST. A genial moment oft has given What years of toil and pain, Of long industrious toil, have striven To win, and all in vain:

Yet count not, when thine end is won, That labor merely lost;

Nor say it had been wiser done To spare the painful cost.

When, heaped upon the altar, lie All things to feed the fire, One spark alighting from on high, The flames at once aspire:

But those sweet gums and fragrant woods, Its rich materials rare,

By tedious quest o’er lands and floods Had first been gathered there. |

R. C. TRENCH.

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GENERAL EXERCISES.

VIUI.— ANCIENT AND

MODERN

WRITERS.

The classics possess a peculiar charm, from the circumstance that they have been the models, I might almost say the masters, of composition and thought in all ages.

In the contemplation of these

august teachers of mankind, we are filled with conflicting emotions. They are the early voice of the world, better remembered and more cherished still than all the intermediate words that have been

uttered; as the lessons of childhood still haunt us when the impres-

sions of later years have been effaced from the mind.

But they

show with most unwelcome frequency the tokens of the world’s

childhood, before passion had yielded to the sway of reason and the affections.

They want the highest charm of purity, of righteousness,

of elevated sentiments, of love to God and man.

It is not in the

frigid philosophy of the Porch and the Academy that we are to seek

these; not in the marvellous teachings of Socrates, as they come mended by the mellifluous words of Plato; not in the resounding line

of Homer, on whose inspiring tale of blood Alexander pillowed his head; not in the animated strain of Pindar, where virtue is pictured in the successful strife of an athlete at the Isthmian games; not in the torrent of Demosthenes, dark with self-love and the spirit of vengeance; not in the fitful philosophy and intemperate eloquence

of Tully; not in the genial libertinism of Horace, or the stately atheism of Lucretius.

No: these must not be our masters; in none

of these are we to seek the way of life.

For eighteen hundred years,

the spirit of these writers has been engaged in weaponless contest

with the Sermon on the Mount, and those two sublime command. ments on which hang all the law and the prophets. still pending.

The strife is

Heathenism, which has possessed itself of such siren

forms, is not yet exorcised.

It still tempts the young, controls the

affairs of active life, and haunts the meditations of age. Our own productions, though they may yield to those of the xncients in the arrangement of ideas, in method, in beauty of form,

and in freshness of illustration, are immeasurably superior in the truth, delicacy, and elevation of their sentiments; above all, in the benign recognition of that great Christian revelation, the brother-

hood of man.

How vain are eloquence and poetry, compared with

this heaven-descended truth!

Put in one scale that simple utter-

ance, and in the other the lore of antiquity, with its accumulating

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PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED.

2538

glosses and commentaries, and the last will be light and trivial in the balance. Greek poetry has been likened to the song of the nightingale, as she sits in the rich, symmetrical crown of the palm-

tree, trilling her thick-warbled notes; but even this is less sweet

and tender than the music of the human heart.

CHARLES SUMNER.

IX.— THE TRUE SOURCE OF REFORM.

The great element of reform is not born of human wisdom; it does not draw its life from human organizations. I find it only in Christianity. “Thy kingdom come,” — there is a sublime and pregnant burden in this prayer. It is the aspiration of every soul that goes forth in the spirit of reform. For what is the significance of this prayer? It is a petition that all holy influences would penetrate and subdue and dwell in the heart of man, until he shall think and speak and do good from the very necessity of his being. So would the institutions of error and wrong crumble and pass away.

So would sin die out from the earth; and, the human soul living

in harmony with the divine will, this earth would become like

| heaven. It is too late for the reformers to sneer at Christianity; it is fool‘ishness for them to reject it. In it are enshrined our faith in human progress, our confidence in reform. It is indissolubly connected with all that is hopeful, spiritual, capable, in man. That men have misunderstood it and perverted it, is true. But it is also true that the noblest efforts for human melioration have come out of it, have been

based upon it. Is it not so? Come, ye remembered ones, who sleep

~ the sleep of the just, who took your conduct from the line of Christian philosophy!— come from your tombs, and answer.

Come, Howard! from the gloom of the prison and the taint of the lazar-house, and show us what philanthropy can do when imbued with the spirit of Jesus. Come, Eliot! from the thick forest where

the red man listens to the word of life; come, Penn! from thy sweet

counsel and weaponless victory, — and show us what Christian zeal and Christian love can accomplish with the rudest barbarians or the fiercest hearts. Come, Raikes! from thy labors with the ignorant and the poor, and show us with what an eye this faith regards the lowest and least of our race; and how diligently it labors, not for

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GENERAL EXERCISES.

the body, not for the rank, but for the plastic soul that is to course

the ages of immortality.

And ye, who are a great number,— ye nameless ones, — who have done good in your narrower spheres, content to forego renown on earth, and seeking your reward in the record on high! come, and tell us how kindly a spirit, how lofty a purpose, or how strong a courage, the religion ye professed can breathe into the poor, the

humble, and the weak.

Go forth, then, Spirit of Christianity! to thy great work of reform. The Past bears witness to thee in the blood of thy martyrs, and the ashes of thy saints and heroes.

because of thee.

The Present is hopeful

The Future shall acknowledge thy omnipotence.

E. H. CHAPIN,

X.— GREAT MEN GENERALLY GOOD. (See p. 124.)

Those who have shone in all ages as the lights of the world; the most celebrated names that are recorded in the annals of fame; legislators, the founders of states, and the fathers of their country, on whom succeeding ages have looked back with filial reverence; patriots, the guardians of the laws, who have stemmed the torrent of

corruption in every age; heroes, the saviours of their country, who

have returned victorious from the field of battle, or, more than victorious, who have died for their country; philosophers, who have opened the book of nature, and explained the wonders of almighty power;

bards, who have sung the praises of virtue and of virtuous men, whose strains carry them down to immortality, — with a few excep-

tions, have been uniformly on the side of goodness, and have been as distinguished in the temple of fame.

It was one of the maxims which

governed their lives, that there is nothing in nature which can com-

pensate wickedness; that, although the rewards and punishments

which influence illiberal and ungenerous minds were set aside; that, although the thunders of the Almighty were hushed, and the gates of paradise were open no more, they would follow religion and virtue for

their own sake, and co-operate with eternal Providence in perpetual endesvors to favor the good, to depress the bad, and to promote the

happiness of the whole creation. Joon LOGAN.

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APPENDIX.

p. 270

APPENDIX.

I.— USES OF CAPITAL LETTERS.

Tove the subject uf capital letters is but indirectly allied to punctuation, it may be suitable here to lay down

a few principles, useful to all who are desirous of combining taste and propriety in their compositions, especially to persons likely to become in any way connected with the public press.

It was formerly the custom to

use capitals with greater frequency and less discrimination than it is at the present day; almost every noun, nay, in some cases almost every word of the slightest

importance, having had its initial thus distinguished. The following is a moderate specimen of the style

alluded to, taken from Clarendon’s “ History of the Rebellion,” where he treats.of Lord Strafford’s death: — “Thus Fell the greatest Subject in power, and little inferior to any in Fortune that was at that time in any of the three Kingdoms; Who could well remember the time when he led those People who then pursued him to his Grave. He was a man of great Parts, and extraordinary Endowments of Nature; not unadorned with some

addition of Art and Learning, though that again was more improved and illustrated by the other.”

But as this practice was to a great extent arbitrary, and did not possess the advantage of either ornament or utility, the use of capital letters is now very properly limited to the applications about to be mentioned.

p. 271

APPENDIX.

258

RULE

The First Word of a Book, Tract, &¢.

The first word of every book, tract, essay, &c., and of their great divisions, — chapters, sections, paragraphs,

and notes, — must commence with a capital letter. REMARKS.

a. Numerous exemplifications of the rule will be found in the _

present or any other work.

b. Phrases or clauses, when separately numbered, begin each with a capital letter; as, “The reproach of barbarism may be incurred in three different ways: 1. By the use of words entirely obsolete; 2. By the use of words entirely new; or, 3. By new formations and compositions from simple and primitive words in present use.” RULE

If.

The First Word after a Full Point.

The first word after a period, and after a note of

interrogation or exclamation when grammatically equi— valent to a period, should begin with a capital; as, 1. Let the tone of your conversation be invariably benevolent. Differ without asperity; agree without dogmatism. Kind words cost no more than unkind ones.

2. What is it that keeps men in continua) discontent and agitation? It

is, that they cannot make realities correspond with their conceptions.

8. Fair, fair, shall be the flowers that spring over thy tomb, dear, gentle sweet as thine own — that shall lure the — song Elia! Sweet shall be the wanderer to the spot where thy urn receives the tears of the stranger. REMARKS.

a. Some writers and printers always commence with a capital letter the word immediately following a colon; but this should take place only when required by other rules.

6. When the period is a mark for an abbreviated word or phrase

which does not end a sentence, the following word is commenced, not with a capital, but with a small letter; as, “ Franklin had the

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CAPITAL LETTERS.

209

degree of LL.D. conferred on him by the University of St. Andrew’s, - Scotland.” Here it will be seen, that the initial of “ conferred” is small. The word “ Andrew’s,’? indeed, though coming after an abbreviation, is put with a capital; but this, of course, arises from the fact that “St. Andrew’s”’ is a proper name.

c. When two or more sentences, of an exclamatory or interrogative kind, are closely connected in sense and construction, all of them, except the first, begin with a small letter; as, “ How ugly @ person appears, upon whose reputation some awkward aspersion hangs! and how suddenly his countenance clears up with his character! ’? — “ What child is there, who, in a toyshop, does not prefer the gaudiest toy, if all other circumstances of attraction be the same? or, rather, to what child are not this very glare and glitter the chief circumstances of attraction? and in what island of savages have our circumnavigators found the barbarian to differ in this respect from the child?” In the passages just cited, the words “and,” “or,” which follow the note of exclamation and of interrogation, are begun with small letters, because these marks are equivalent, not to full points, but to semicolons. RULE

II.

Appellations of God and Christ.

Names of the Deity and of Jesus Christ must commence with a capital letter; as, — 1. Jehovah, Lord, God; Creator, Father, Preserver, Governor; the Eternal, the Almighty, the All-wise; the Supreme Being; the Holy Spirit. 2. The Messiah, the Anointed; the Son, the Saviour, the Redeemer; the Holy One; Prophet, Teacher, Master; Judge of the world. REMARES.

a. Some of these and similar words are begun, sometimes with a capital, and sometimes with a small letter, according to the sense in which they are taken. Thus, God, with a large initial, is the name of the Supreme Being; god, with a small character, an appellation used occasionally of men, angels, and false divinities; as, “ The Lord is a great God above all gods.”

6. With initial capitals, Lord and King are applied to God and Christ; with a small 7 and &, the same words denote men having authority and power. Thus, in the Apocalypse, our Saviour is

p. 273

260

APPENDIX.

called “Lord of lords, and King of kings;” and, in the Old Testa. ment, a great sovereign is styled a “ king of kings.”

c. From the vagueness of the ideas represented by the word nature, it is difficult to lay down any precise rule as to the mode of

writing or printing it.

In general, it should begin with a small n;

as, “ He looks through nature up to nature’s God;

except when

strongly personified, or when clearly used of the intelligent Principle

of the universe.

d. Providence, with an initial capital, denotes the infinitely good

Being who provides for the wants of his creatures; but, when beginning with a small p, it means either divine superintendence or human foresight.

So, Heaven, with a capital H, signifies God, the

Sovereign of heaven, or of the celestial regions. e. The adjectives divine, heavenly, eternal, universal, providentiat, and others of a similar kind, when applied to God, his attributes, or

his agency, are sometimes written initially with capitals; but, unless when particularly emphatic, small letters are preferable, because the names of the Deity occurring in the connection sufficiently indi-

cate the Being referred to. J.

As exceptions to Remark e, the epithets occurring in First

Cause, Divine or Supreme Being, Almighty God, Infinite One, should begin with large letters, because universal custom favors this mode of writing.

The adjective Most High or Highest should also appear

with an initial capital, when the noun which it qualifies is not used.

g- When the attributes of the Deity or of the Saviour are expressed, not by adjectives, but, in the Hebrew style, by nouns, — as,

Father of mercies, God of wisdom, Prince of peace, instead of the merciful Father, the wise God, the peaceful Prince,—they should begin, like the adjectives, with small letters, as here exemplified.

h. The appellation Son of man, when applied to Christ, whether by way of eminence or of humility, is probably better printed, not “Son of Man” or “son of man,’? but as it appears in the common version of the Bible, and in the first line of this remark.

i. The word Spirit, and the phrases Holy or Divine Spirit, Holy

Ghost, Spirit of God, are usually capitalized, whether said of the

Deity or of his gifts and influences. Some writers, however, restrict the capitals to these terms when they have a personal import, but use small letters when they signify merely divine inspiration or

heavenly aid.

As the mode of exhibiting these words is as much a matter of theology as of taste, authors should be particularly careful

to write the initials as they wish them to be printed.

p. 274

CAPITAL LETTERS.

261

j. Pronouns referring to God and Christ should not begin with capitals, unless they are used emphatically without a noun.

Hymne

and prayers are often disfigured by the unnecessary use cf these.

letters, as in the following lines: — These are Thy glorious works, Parent of good, Almighty! Thine this universal frame,

Thus wondrous fair: Thyself how wondrous then! —

which would lose none of their true grandeur, if more simply printed:—

These are thy glorious works, Parent of good, Almighty! thine this universal frame, Thus wondrous fair: thyself how wondrous then!

RULE

IV.

Titles of Honor and Respect.

Titles of honor and respect, either descriptive of persons in exalted stations or addressed to them, usually begin with capital letters; as, — 1. Her Majesty, His Honor, Your Royal Highness, Your Grace. 2. My Lord, my Lady; dear Sir, respected Madam or Friend.

3. The President of the United States. 4. His Excellency the Governor of Massachusetts. REMARKS.

a. In the rules and reports of societies, institutions, &c., names

indicating office should begin with capitals; as, Chairman, President,

Vice-President, Treasurer, Secretary, Committee, Directors, Board of Managers.

also, when used in a specific sense, the words

Report, Society, Institution, Corporation, Constitution, Commonwealth,

State,

University, College, Academy, School,

Legislature, &c.

Congress, Parliament,

In the plural number, or when used in a general

sense, such words are properly put in small characters.

b. The pope; his or her majesty; king, queen; duke, duchess; lord, lady; sir, madam ; president, governor, and words of a similar kind, should be written or printed with small initials, when they occur

very frequently, or without any particular expression of honor.

When prefixed to proper names, however, they are always begun

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262

APPENDIX.

with capitals; as, President Jefferson, Governor Winthrop, Professor Longfellow, Lord Brougham, Countess of Blessington, Queen Victoria, the Emperor Napoleon, Pope Pius LX.

c. So, also, father, mother ; brother, sister; uncle, aunt, &c., commence with capital letters when put before proper names; as, Aunt Dorothy, Brother Gray. But the term father, when applied to any of the early orthodox writers of the Christian Church, is begun with

a capital, whether it be or be not prefixed to a proper name; as,

“Even the soundest of the Fathers held some opinions inconsistent with the doctrines of the gospel.”

RULE

Names of Persons, Places, &c.

All proper names, whether of animate or inanimate existences, begin with capitals; as, — 1. Jupiter, Juno; Pompey, Penelope; William, Sarah. 2. America, Europe; France, Spain, Great Britain.

8. New York, Philadelphia; London, Edinburgh, Broadway. 4. The Atlantic, the Red Sea, Lake Erie, the Alps. §. January, Monday, Christmas, Good Friday, Easter. REMARKS.

a. When the word devil is used of Satan, it may begin with a capital; as, the Devil and his angels. But when employed of demoniacal agents or of wicked men, whether in the singular or the plural number, it commences with a small letter.

b. The words heaven, hell, paradise, the celestial and the infernal | regions, representing either states of mind or places of reward and punishment, usually begin with small letters; but Elysium, Tartarus, and Pandemonium, with capitals.

c. Appellatives, merely expletory, coming before proper names,

are begun with small letters; but, when put immediately after them,

they are distinguished by capitals; as, the river Thames, the city of London; London City, the Thames River. d. When North, South, East, West, &c., denote certain countries

of which we are accustomed to speak, or the people who reside in certain parts of the globe or in districts of our own land, they are

written or printed with initial capitals; as, “This man’s accent shows that he belongs to the South.’

But, when they refer to

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—6.263

CAPITAL LETTERS.

places or things as being more to the north, south, &c., than others, these words are begun with small letters; as, ‘“ London is situated east of Windsor.”

e. Sunday, as one of the days of the week, always has an initial capital; while, on the contrary, sabbath, or sabbath-day, is perhaps more frequently written and printed with a small s than with a large one. The initials in Lord’s Day, New Year’s Day, &c., are usually capitalized.

RULE

VI.

Nouns and Adjectives derived from Proper Names.

Gentile nouns, adjectives derived from gentile nouns, and nouns or adjectives formed from proper names, begin with capitals; as, —

1A Hebrew, a Greek, a Roman, a German, a Spaniard, a Frenchman.

2. Hebrew, Grecian, Roman, Italian, French, Spanish, American. 3. A Christian, a Brahmin, a Mahometan; Augustan, Elizabethan. REMARKS.

a. Names of sectaries, whether formed from proper nouns or otherwise, should begin with capitals; as, “ Good men are found among Christian denominations of the most opposite doctrines, — among Roman Catholics and Protestants, Athanasians and Arians, Trinitarians and Unitarians, Lutherans, Calvinists, Arminians, and Universalists.” So, also, when used adjectively; as, the Wesleyan doctrines; Papal, Protestant, and Episcopal ceremonies. b. A few adjectives and common nouns, derived from proper

names, are usually printed with small initials; as, godlike, stentorian, hermetical, hymeneal, prussic; epicure, epicurism ; philippic, simony, jalap, damask, cashmere (shawl), china (ware), guinea (a coin), turkey (a fowl), champagne (wine). These and similar words are so written, because usually little or no reference is made to the proper names

from which they were derived.

c. For the same reason, the verbs to hector, to philippize, to romance, to galvanize, to yapan, should be written with small letters. But, on account of their more obvious allusion to the proper names whence they have been taken, Judaize and Christianize are better written or

printed with initial capitals.

The compounds wnchristian, antichris-

tian, &c., are, however, done with small characters.

p. 277

264

' APPENDIX. RULE

VIL.

Words of Primary Importance.

Words of primary importance, especially if they

indicate some great event, or remarkable change in religion or government, are commenced with. eapital letters; as, — 1. The Reformation, effected mainly by Luther, is one of the most wonderful events in modern times.

2. Glorious New England! around thy hills and mountains cling, like

gathering mists, the mighty memories of the Revolution. REMARKS.

a. The use of capitals in important words and phrases seems to

be, in some measure, a matter of mere taste or caprice. Channing not unfrequently represents the greatest of his great ideas by words having initial capitals; Carlyle, and other imitators of German

thought and expression, employ them superabundantly, and with little discrimination; while others are particularly careful that the

uniformity which is so desirable in a printed page be marred as little

as possible by the practice referred to.

6. Every noun or leading word in the titles of books and other

publications must begin, wherever it occurs, with a capital letter; as, “ Gray’s ‘Elegy in a Country Churchyard’ is perhaps the finest poem of the kind in the English or any other language.” c. Terms denoting the records of the

Jewish and Christian reve-

lations are distinguished by initial capitals; as, the Scriptures, the

Holy Bible, the Sacred Writings, the Old and the New Testament.

But

the phrase word of God, when employedin this sense, is begun witha small letter; while the term Word, or ‘ Logos,’’ as used by St. John in the introduction to his Gospel, and so much discussed by divines,

is generally written and printed with a capital.

d. The word gospel has a small letter for its initial when it means

_the religion of Jesus, but a capital when it denotes one of the four

Gospels; as, the Gospel of Matthew.

So, also, the term revelation

when denoting the divine instructions contained in the Bible, begins

with a small letter; but, used of the Apocalypse, or Revelation of St. John, it must be distinguished with a capital.

p. 278

CAPITAL LETTERS.

265

e, The word church, when used by itself or ina general sense, should begin with a small letter; but, when connected with an adjective indicating a particular body of Christians, it should commence with a capital; as, the Protestant Church. J. So, also, the term catholic, whether as a noun or an adjective, should be written and printed with a small ¢, when it is used of all Christians, or of men of liberal and tolerant principles; but with a capital when significant merely of the Romish community. g. For the sake of uniformity, the names Gentile, Heathen, and

Pagan, so often occurring in connection with Jew, should, when used as nouns, begin with capitals; but, when employed adjectively, with small letters. The words orthodoxy, orthodow ; heterodoxy, heterodox; heresy, heretic, heretical; mysticism, mystic, mystical; atheism,

atheist, atheistic; pantheism, pantheist, pantheistic; deism, deist, deistical;

rationalism, rationalist, rationalistic; supernaturalism, supernaturalist;

transcendentalism, transcendentalist, transcendental ; spiritualism, spi-

ritualist, are usually put with small characters. The term Orthodow, however, when used of any particular section of the orthodox body of Christians, should begin with a capital letter; as, the Orthodox Congregationalists. — See p. 263, Remark a. h. Designations of political parties should commence each with a capital letter; as, Whig, Tory, Federalist, Democrat, Republican,

Conservative, Radical, Free Soiler. i. In advertisements, handbills, and cards, the principal words — such as the names of the arts and sciences, and nouns occurring in a list of articles — are properly begun with capitals. RULE

VIIL

The Pronoun I, and the Interjection O.

The pronoun J, and the interjection O, should invariably be written or printed in capitals; as, — With three steps I compass thy grave, O thou who wast so great before! REMARKS.

a, The interjection oh should never, as is sometimes done, be put with an initial capital, except at the beginning of a sentence, or of a linein verse.

b. For the modes of using the two words O and oh, see page 160,

Remark ¢

p. 279

266

APPENDIX.

RULE

IX,

Commencement of Lines in Verse.

The first word of every line in poetry is begun with

a capital letter; as, — No

eye beheld when William plunged Young Edmund in the stream;

No human ear but William’s heard

Young Edmund’s drowning scream. REMARKS.

a. The initial letter in the first word of a poetical quotation,

though not beginning a line, should be capitalized; as, “ One of the most illustrious names in the literary annals of Europe is that of

Spenser, —

‘ That gentle bard, Chosen by the Muses for their page of state.’ ”

6. In humorous verse, when a portion of a word is put at the end

of one line, and the other portion at the beginning of the next, the latter should be put with a small initial; as, — Paganini, Paganini! Never was there such a geni-

us before as Paganini.

RULE

Prosopopeia, or Personification.

Nouns that represent inanimate beings as persons should begin with capitals; as, — Better to sit in Freedom’s hall, With a cold, damp floor, and a mouldering wall,

Than to bend the neck or to bow the knee

In the proudest palace of Slavery. REMARKS.

a. According to this rule, all such words as the Muses, the Graces,

the Furies, the Fates, should be distinguished by capitals.

When

“the graces’? is used of certain moral affections, a common g is properly used.

p. 280

CAPITAL LETTERS.

267

— b. So, also, Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter; the Sun, the Earth, the Moon, and the Stars, should each begin with a capital when they are personified, but with a small letter when they are used in ordinary composition. In works on astronomy, it is better to capitalize |

them.

c. The rule should be applied with some discrimination. It is only when the figure prosopopeia is uncommonly vivid that the nonn should have its initial with a capital letter; there being a tendency, even in the most inanimate compositions, to impart a certain degree of life and energy to the representatives of our thoughts. But, though in numberless instances it would be improper to capitalize such words, the more glowing personifications of the poet and the orator ought unquestionably to be so distinguished. RULE

XI.

Quotations, Examples, &c.

- The first word of every quotation, example, precept,

or question, introduced in a direct form, must begin with a capital letter; as, —

1. Bushnell well remarks, “ Hitherto, the love of passion has been the

central fire of the world’s literature.”

2. These two questions, What are we?” and ‘ Whither do we tend?”

will at times press painfully upon thoughtful minds. REMARKS.

a. When a quotation is introduced by the conjunction that, or is brought in obliquely or indirectly, a small letter is preferable; as, “Tt is well said by a celebrated writer, that, ‘ precious as thought is, the love of truth is still more precious.’’? —“ Happy those who,

‘dying, leave no line they wish to blot’!?? — “ This great patriot

bequeathed to his heirs the sword which he had worn in the war for liberty, and charged them‘ never to take it from the scabbard but in self-defence, or in defence of their country and her freedom.’ ”’ 6. Examples, consisting of mere words or phrases; may have small letters for their initials, when they do not commence new lines, or are not formally introduced with the words “as follows,’’ or with

a similar expression. Numerous illustrations of this remark may be seen in pages 211-20.

p. 281

268

APPENDIX.

RULE

XII.

Capitals used instead of Figures.

Numbers are sometimes written or printed wholly in capitals, as representative characters. Thus, — I. is used instead of one, or first; IV. for four, or fourth; XI. for eleven, or eleventh; XX. for twenty, or twentieth; XL. for forty, or fortieth; &c. REMARKS.

a. Some writers refer to passages in books by putting the num-

bers of the volume, part, chapter, &c., in capital letters, and also by

capitalizing the first letter in the name of the division specified; as,

“Campbell on the Four Gospels, Vol. I. Diss. V. Part IV. Sect. II. But, when such references are numerous, small letters

Page 218.”

are preferable, because they have a neater appearance; as, “ Campbeli on the Four Gospels, vol. i. diss. v. part iv. sect. ii. page [or p.| 218.”

6. For the punctuation, see pp. 150-1, Rule V. and Remarks.

RULE

XIIL

Titlepages, Inscriptions, &e.

Titlepages of books, and heads of chapters, sections,

articles, &c., are, with some few exceptions, put entirely in capitals.

Unless very long, dedications of printed

works, and inscriptions on monuments, are commonly distinguished in the same’ manner. REMARKS.

a. The first word in a book or chapter is usually put in small

capitals, with the exception of the initial letter, which should have & common-size capital.

6. Capitals or small capitals are also used, either singly or otherwise, as abbreviations of titles and other words, and as representative

signs, particularly in works of art and science, such as chemistry, mechanics, arithmetic, grammar, music, &c.

exhibited in the article beginning on page 272.

Many of these will be

p. 282

ITALIC CHARACTERS.

269

In concluding these rules and remarks on the use of capitals, we would suggest that authors either note accurately and consistently the words which they mean

to be so distinguished, or allow the printer to exercise his own taste and judgment. By this means, not only

would a great loss of time be saved to the workman, but the work itself would have a neater and more uniform appearance.

In manuscript, words or sentences meant to be printed in CAPITALS are distinguished by having

three lines drawn under them; in SMALL CAPITALS, by two lines; and in /talics, by one.

Il. — ITALIC CHARACTERS.

Characters called Jtalies, and printed in this form, are used chiefly to point out emphatical expressions, or to distinguish foreign words and phrases. In the com-

mon version of the Scriptures, however, words are so printed to show that they have nothing corresponding to them in the original Hebrew or Greek, but were inserted by the translators to complete or explain the sense.

It is quite impracticable to lay down definite and

unvarying rules in respect to all the circumstances

under which it is proper to use Italic letters.

Their

employment was at one time exceedingly common ; all proper names, and almost all words of more than ordinary significance, having been written cr printed in this

p. 283

270

APPENDIX.

manner.

A sparing use of Italics is, however, strongly

recommended to authors and typographers; for it is

obvious, that, as there are in composition innumerable

shades and degrees of emphasis, a prodigal introduction of words of a sloping character would tend rather

te confound the sense and perplex the reader, than to

elucidate the meaning, or to assist in discriminating the relative importance which should be attached to different sentiments.

In all works, however, which treat of matters relating to science, art, or language, where it is necessary

to adduce words and phrases ‘in illustration of certain principles, or to employ them in technical senses, the

use of Italic characters is indispensable.

In the pre-

sent treatise, it will be seen that they are freely and unavoidably used.

II. — TERMS RELATING TO BOOKS.

Carrions and SuBHEADs are words or expressions that stand above chapters, sections, and paragraphs, for the purpose of indicating their contents.

S1ps-

HEADS are of a similar nature, but put in the first line

of the paragraph or paragraphs to which they refer. Runnine TiTLes — or, as they are sometimes called, headlines — are such words or phrases as are placed at

the top of the page.

All these are printed usually in

capital or small-capital letters; sometimes, especially in magazines, in Italics.

p. 284

TERMS RELATING TO BOOKS.

971

Signatures are the letters of the alphabet, used by English printers in the foot-margin of certain pages, as a guide to direct the bookbinder in arranging and folding the sheets. ‘The letter B is put at the bottom of the first sheet or half-sheet which comes immediately after the titlepage, preface, and contents; C, at that of the second; and so on throughout the alphabet, with the exception of J, V, and W. If the number of pages require more signatures than the alphabet will indicate, the letters are doubled or trebled, or a numeral is prefixed to them; as, Aa,Bs; 2A,2 B; 3A, &c. Figures, or numeral characters (1, 1*; 2, 2*; &c.), being more convenient than letters, are used for the same purpose by American printers. But in catalogues, and other publications in which figures often occur, capitals or small capitals are, for distinction’s sake, preferable.

Names or Various Sizes or Books. — Folo denotes a sheet of paper folded into two leaves, making four pages; quarto, or, as abbreviated, 4to or A°, isa

sheet divided into four leaves, or eight pages; octavo, 8vo or 8°, a sheet into eight leaves, or sixteen pages;

duodecimo, 12mo or 12°, a sheet into twelve leaves, or.

twenty-four pages. So, also, sixteens, 16mo or 16°; eighteens, 18mo or 18°; twenty-fours, 24mo or 24° 5

thirty-twos, 32mo or 32°; forty-eights, 48mo or 48° ; sixty-fours, 64mo or 64°, are the several designations

of sheets when folded into sixteen, eighteen, twenty-

four, thirty-two, forty-eight, and sixty-four leaves; making each twice the number of pages.

p. 285

27?

APPENDIX.

[V.— ABBREVIATIONS AND

REPRESENTATIVE

LETTERS.

The following is perhaps the largest list of miscellaneous abbreviations that has yet been published ; but its

chief value consists in affording to writers and printers

an opportunity of selecting those modes of abbreviating words which seem best fitted for the purposes they

may have in view.

To further this object, the com-

piler has presented the various forms in which any given word or phrase has been employed, where more than one has been in use; appending a dagger (Tf) to

such as appear unsuitable, either in consequence of their being already employed for other words, because

they are less intelligible than they should be, or have

but slight authority for their adoption.

But the mark

is not intended to imply, that these should never be preferred; for cases will arise, where, from the connection or the narrowness of the printed line, it may be desirable to use them.

To those abbreviations, how-

ever, which are regarded as unfit to appear under any

circumstances, but which are used by some writers, he has put a double dagger (]).

It need scarcely be said, that only a few of the abbreviations here exhibited should appear in ordinary composition.

But they are very serviceable in cata-

logues, directories, tabular lists of articles, and family registers; and

in works on grammar, lexicography,

p. 286

ABBREVIATIONS.

273

arithmetic, geography, &c.; where certain terms often

oceur, and their full spelling would impede the course of a reader, or swell the size of a book. There are

also some words and phrases, which, wherever they

may occur, whether in works relating to science and

art or to general literature, are commonly written as abbreviations. These are either mostly a few Latin words, which, without being Anglicized, are found useful in supplying the place of circumlocutions in the language; as, &¢., instead of “ and other persons” or

“things:” or they are titles prefixed to proper names;

as, “ Mr. Richardson, Dr. Finlay, Capt. Jameson,” &c.: or are terms made use of in reference to passages in books; as, “See pp. 500, seg. ; and comp. sect. 6.” When referring, in notes or at the beginning or end of extracts, to works that are well known, it is usual to abbreviate the longer words in their titles; as, “ Gibbon’s Hist. of the Dec. and Fall of the Rom. -Emp., vol. ii. p. 288.” In the list will be found abbreviations of only some American and British periodicals ; for it would be a vain attempt to give more than a few specimens of the abbreviations adopted in the names of such publications, and altogether impossible to exhibit those used in the names of books in general. Indeed, such abbreviations are quite too much in vogue; and it is recommended, that, in all cases where the common reader is supposed to be unacquainted with the works to which reference is made, the titles be printed in full, or at least such portions as will clearly indicate what the writer intends. In treatises, however, addressed merely to the learned professions, it may be sufficient generally to indicate authorities by 18

p. 287

274

APPENDIX.

the first letter or letters in each word.

Copious lists

of those relating to botany, law, and organic remains, will be found in Savage’s “ Dictionary of the Art of

Printing,” pp. 59-81, 480-87, and 548. When the names of the books of Scripture are specified with chapter and verse, they should, except those of but one syllable, be given in their abbreviated forms ;

as, “Gen. xlix. 26.

Matt. vii. 28.”

When spoken of ©

without reference to any particular passage, the names

should be spelled out; as, “ The Gospel of Matthew is

the first book in the New Testament.” The more common baptismal names, if put in lists

where the saving of room is an object, should be printed

with such portions as will lead to a true knowledge of them.

They may all, indeed, be severally abbreviated

with only the initial letter, when the persons whom they represent are so well known that no mistake can

readily take place,

or when it is

deemed of little

importance whether they be known or not.

But in

books in which elegance of composition, intelligibility

of sense, or uniformity of printing, is desirable, the

names of persons, at least those by which they are commonly designated, ought to appear in full. Names of ladies should, if possible, be so given. Titles of eminent men, when put immediately after their names, are almost universally abbreviated;

“ Walter Kinderhook, D.D.”

as,

But, when the titles are

predicated of persons, they are better written in full; as,

“The Rev. Joshua Rankin is a Doctor of Divinity;

and Matthew Finlayson, Bachelor of Arts.”

To preclude mistakes, the names of cities, towns, and other places, should not, if avoidable, be abbreviated.

p. 288

ABBREVIATIONS.

275

The names of states and kingdoms should also be written or printed in full, unless they occur in tabular matter or in geographical books where the abbrevia-

tions have been previously explained; or unless they are placed immediately after the names of cities, &c.; as, “ There being a Boston in England as well as in Massachusetts, besides several others in

the United

States, be careful that, in addressing any letter to a place bearing that name, you state its proper destina-

tion, and say either ‘ Boston, Hing. ;’ ‘ Boston, Mass. ;’

‘Boston, WV. ¥.;’ or ‘Boston, 0.;’ as the case may require.” With the exception of May, June, and July, and per-

haps also March and April, the names of the months should be abbreviated when they stand in connection

with the day of the month; as, “ Dec. 25, 1854.”

all other instances, they should, if possible, be spelled

out; as, “Robert Burns was born in the month of _ January, 1759.”

All words which, when abbreviated, are shortened

only by one letter, should be written or printed in full. Jb. for “ Job,” Jno. for “John,” and dy. for “day,” are, obviously, improper and unnecessary.

The usual abbreviations made use of in works on chemistry and in medical prescriptions, &c., will be found inserted in the following table; but a more com-

plete list appears in Savage’s “ Dictionary of Printing,” pp. 287-44, 481-84.

Some abbreviations are used only in the middle of

sentences, and begun with small characters; others, as the initials of titles, are always printed in capitals;

while others, again, appear sometimes with initial capi-

p. 289

276

APPENDIX.

tals, and sometimes with initial small letters. When there are two modes of printing them, both will be found exhibited in the table, that the eye may be accustomed to both forms; but the mode of using them will

depend on the principles laid down iin the article on capitals, pp. 257-68. To an author who finds it necessary to adopt abbre-

viations not in common use, it is recommended that he present, at the beginning of his treatise, a list of all

that, may be required for his purpose, with the requisite explanations; and that, if at all practicable, he preserve the same forms throughout the work.

Contractions formed by the insertion of apostrophes — as, Sup’t for “ Superintendent,” or Veg’ta’s for

“ Vegetables” — are altogether excluded from the fol-

lowing list, because deemed fit to be used onlyin cases

of extreme necessity.

So, also, those contractions which

sometimes appear at the foot of advertisements, but which are not meant to be read by the public;

as,

“isF&Tu&osMWThSattf;” a direction which would

have a more common-sense-like appearance, if it stood thus:

“i.F.&Tu. & o.M.W.TH.S. t.f.;” and be better

adapted to express the meaning, — “To be inserted

inside on Friday and Tuesday, and outside on Monday,

Wednesday, Thursday, and Saturday, till forbidden.” As the exhibiting of Latin abbreviations, unless used

in English composition, falls not within the scope of

the present work, it will be sufficient merely to refer to the Latin dictionaries for those pertaining to the

classics;

and to

Savage’s book, already mentioned,

pp- 204 and 689-700, for such as are used in Domesday-Book and in the old Public Records.

p. 290

277

ABBREVIATIONS.

ABBREVIATIONS AND

CONTRACTIONS.

ees

A. — Five hundred (ance.).

A.D. — Anno Domini, in the year

A, — Augustus; Aulus. A.— Accepted; Answer.

Ad lib. or ad lib. — Ad libitum,

A.f or a.t — Adjective. -

Adj. or adj. — Adjective.

A. — Five thousand (anc.).

of our Lord; Archduke. at pleasure.

A. or a.— Afternoon.

Adjt. — Adjutant.

A.t a.t or ac. — Acre, acres.

Adjt.-Gen. — Adjutant-General.

A. A.P.S.— American Associa-

Adm. or Adml.t — Admiral, Ad-

tion for the Promotion of Sci-

miralty.

Adm. Co. — Admiralty Court.

ence.

A. A.S. — Academie Americane

Admr. — Administrator.

Socius, Fellow of the American

Admx. — Administratrix.

Academy (of Arts and Sci-

Ad v. or ad v.-—~- Ad valorem, at

ences).

A.A.8.S. — Americane Antiqua-

the value.

Adv. — Advent; Advocate.

riane Societatis Soctus, Member

Adv. or adv. — Adverb.

of the American Antiquarian

Et. or at.; AL.t or 2.¢ — Hiatia, of age, aged.

Society. A.B.— Artium Baccalaureus, Ba-

A. & F. B.S. — American and Foreign Bible Society.

chelor of Arts. - Ab. or ab. — About.

A.F.t or A. fir. — Firkin of ale.

Abbr. or abbr. — Abbreviated.

Af. — Africa.

A.B.C.F.M. — American Board

Ag. — Argentum (Silver).

of Commissioners for Foreign

Agric. — Agriculture.

Missions.

Agt. — Agent.

Abl. or abl.; Ab.t or ab.f — Ab-

Abp. or Archb.f — Archbishop. Absol. or absol. — Absolute.

A.C. — Ante

A.H.— Anno Hegire, in the year of the Hegira.

lative (case).

Christum,

before

Christ.

A. H.M.S.— American

Home

Missionary: Society. Al. — Aluminum.

Ala. or Al.f — Alabama.

A.C. — Archchancellor.

Ald. — Alderman or Aldermen.

Ac. or ac. — Acre, acres.

Alex. — Alexander.

Acc, crace.; Ac.t or ac.f — Ac-

Alt. or alt. — Altitude. A.M. — Anno mundi, in the year

cusative (case).

Acct. or acct. — Account.

A.C.S.— American Colonization —

Society.

of the world.

A.M. — Artium Magister, Master of Arts.

p. 291

278

APPENDIX.

A.M., A.M. or a.m. — Ante meri-

diem, before noon, morning.

Am.t or Amer. — America. Am. or Amer.t — American. Am. Alma. — American Almanac.

Am. Inst. of Instruc. — American

of Astronomy in Gresham College.

Apo. or apo. — Apogee. Apoc. — Apocalypse.

A.R. — Anna

Regina,

Queen

Anne.

Institute of Instruction.

A.R. — Anno regni, in the year

Quar. Obs. — American Quarterly Observer.

Ar. or ar.; Arr.f or arr.t — Ar-

Am.

Quar. Reg. — American

Quarterly Register.

Am.

Quar. Rev. — American

Quarterly Review.

of the reign. rived, arrivals.

Arab., Ara.t or Ar.¢ — Arabic. Arch. — Archibald. Arch. — Architecture.

[tion. Amb. — Ambassador. AMM. — Amalgama, amalgama-

Archb.t — Archbishop.

Amst. — Amsterdam. An. — Anno, in the year.

Ark. — Arkansas.

An. A. C. — Anno ante Christum, in the year before Christ. [zine. Anal. — Analysis. Anal. Mag. — Analectic Maga-

— Anatomy. ~ Anat. Anc. or anc.— Ancient, anciently.

Arith. — Arithmetic. |

Arm. — Armoric; Armenian. A.R.R.— Anno regni regis, in the year of the reign of the king.

Arrond. or arrond. — Arrondisse. ment.

A.R.S.S.— Antiquariorum Regia

And. — Andrew.

Societatis Socius, Fellow of the

Ang.-Sax. — Anglo-Saxon.

Royal Society of Antiquaries.

Ann. Reg. — Annual Register.

Art. or art. — Article.

Anom. or anom. — Anomalous.

As. — Arsenic.

Anon. or An.t — Anonymous.

As.f — Asia.

Ans. — Answer.

A.S. A.— American Statistical

Ant. — Antiquities. Anth. — Anthony. Antw. — Antwerp.

A.P.G. or Ast. P.G.f— Professor

Association.

A.S.S.U.— American Sunday School Union.

Aor. or aor. — Aorist.

Ass.t Asst.f or Assist. Sec.—As-

A.0.5.S. — Americane Orientalis Soctetatis Socius, Member

Astrol. — Astrology.

of the American Oriental So-

Astron. — Astronomy.

ciety.

Ap. — Apostle; Appius. ap.f — Apud, in the writings of; as quoted by.

Ap.t Apr or Apl.t — April.

sistant Secretary.

A.T. — Archtreasurer.

A.T.S. — American Temperance

Society.

A. T.S. — American Tract Society.

p. 292

279

ABBREVIATIONS.

Att. — Attic.

Bds. or bds. — Boards (bound in).

Atty. or Att.f — Attorney.

Benj. or Ben.t — Benjamin.

Atty.-Gen. — Attorney-General.

Berks. — Berkshire.

Attys. — Attorneys.

B.& L. D. — Duke of Brunswick

Au. — Aunes, French ells.

and Lineburg.

Au. — Aurum (Gold).

B.F. or B. fir. — Firkin of beer.

A. U. A. — American Unitarian Association.

Aub.

Theol.

Sem. — Auburn

Theological Seminary.

Bk. — Bank.

Bk.t or bk.t — Book.

A.U.C. — Anno urbis condite, in the year after the building of the city (Rome).

B.LL. — Baccalaureus

Leguin,

Bachelor of Laws. Bl. or bl. — Barrel.

[rels.

Aug. — August; Augustus. .

Bls. or bls.; Bbl. or bbl. — Bar-

Aust. or Austr.t — Austria, Aus-

Blackw.

trian.

Mag. — Blackwood’s

Magazine. . B.M. — Baccalaureus Medicine,

Austral. — Australasia. Auth. Ver. — Authorized Version (of the Bible).

Av. or av.f — Average; avenue. Avoir. or av.t — Avoirdupois. B. — Three hundred (anc.).

B. — Three thousand (ane.). '

Bi. — Bismuth. Bib. Sac. — Bibliotheca Sacra.

Bachelor of Medicine. B.M. — British Mail. B.M. — British Museum.

Bor. or bor. — Borough.

Bos.—~ Boston.

Bot. — Botany.

B. — Basso, bass.

Bp. — Bishop.

B.— Boron.

B.R. — Banco Regis, or Regine,

B. or b.; Bk.t or bk.t — Book.

the King’s or Queen’s Bench.

B. or b. — Bay; born.

Br. — Bromine.

B.A. — Bachelor of Arts.

Br. or br. — Brig.

B.A. — British America.

Br.— Brother.

Ba. — Barium.

Braz. — Brazil.

Bail. or bail. — Bailiwick. Bal. — Balance.

Brs.— Brothers.

Brig. — Brigade; Brigadier. [zine.

Brig.-Gen. — Brigadier-General.

Bank. Mag. — Banker’s Maga-

Brit. or Br.t — British.

Bar. — Baruch.

Brit. Alma. — British Almanac.

Bar. or bar. — Barleycorn.

Brit. Crit. — British Critic.

Bar.f bbl.¢ or bl. — Barrel.

Brit. Mus. — British Museum.

Bart. or Bt.¢ — Baronet.

Brit. Quar. Rev. — British Quar-

B.C. — Before Christ.

B.C.L. — Bachelor of Civil Law.

B.D. — Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Bachelor of Divinity. Bd. or bd. — Bound

terly Review.

Brit. and For. Rev. — British and

Foreign Review.

Bro.—Brother. Bros.—Brothers, Br. Univ. — Brown University.

p. 293

280

APPENDIX.

Brus. — Brussels.

Capt.-Gen. — Captain-General.

Brux. — Bruxelles.

Car. — Carpentry.

Bt.¢ — Baronet.

Car. or car. — Carat or carats.

Bu. or bu.; Bush.t or bush.t —

C.A.S. — Connecticuttensis Aca-

Bushel, bushels.

Bucks. — Buckinghamshire.

B.V.— Beata Virgo, Blessed Virgin.

B.V. — Bene vale, farewell.

demic Socius,

Fellow of the

Connecticut Academy. Cash. — Cashier. Cath. — Catherine; Catholic. C.B. — Cape Breton.

C. — Cesar; Caius.

C.B. — Companion of the Bath.

C. — Carbon.

C.C. — Caius College; County

C.— A hundred; a century.

Commissioner; County Court.

Cc. — A hundred thousand (ane.).

C.C.t — Account Current.

CC. — Two hundred.

C.C.C.— Corpus Christi College.

| CCC.— Three hundred. CCCC.t or CD.—Four hundred.

CCIOO. — Ten thousand. CCCIO00.— A hundred thou-

| C. or c. — Cape. C. or c. — Centum, a hundred.

C.Cc.P. — Court

sand.

C. or c. — Cent, cents. C. or c. — Centime, centimes.

CD. — Four hundred.

-C. or c. — Coomb, coombs.

Cd. — Cadmium.

ch.f; Chap. or Ch.t c.f; or C.t

C.E. — Canada East. C.E. — Civil Engineer.

or chap. — Chapter, chapters. C.t orc.t; Cor. or cor. —- Corner.

Ce. — Cerium.

C.t or c.t; Cub. or cub.—Cubic.

Cel. or Celt.t — Celtic.

c. — Childless.

Cen. — Century.

Ca. — Calcium.

Ces. Aug. — Cesar Augustus. cet. par.-— Ceteris paribus, other things being equal.

Common

Pleas.

Cent. — Centum, a hundred. Cf. or cf. — Confer, compare. C.H. — Court-house. | Ch. — China.

Cam. — Cambridge.

Ch.t or ch.{—Chapter, chapters. Ch. or ch. — Chain, chains. Ch. or ch. — Child or children.

Can. — Canada.

Ch. or C.t — Church.

Cal. — Calende, the Calends. Cal. — California.

Can. or can. — Canton (a portion of territory). Cant. — Canticles.

Ch.t or Chal. — Chaldee.

Cap. or cap. — Caput, capitulum,

Ch.f or ch.ft; Chal. or chal. — Chaldron or chaldrons. [ters. Chance. — Chancellor.

Capt. — Captain.

Chas. — Charles.

Cap. or cap. — Capital. Caps. — Capitals.

chapter.

Chap. or chap. — Chapter, chap-

p. 294

28]

ABBREVIATIONS.

[ner. Chem. —- Chemistry. Chris. Fx. — Christian ExamiChris. Month. Spec. — Christian Monthly Spectator.

Chris. Quar. Spec. — Christian

comp.t — Comparative.

Com. Ver. — Common Version (of the Bible). Con.f or con.}; Conj. or conj. — Conjunction.

Quarterly Spectator.

Chris. Rev. — Christian Review. Chron. — Chronicles.

Con. or con. —- Connective. Con. — Conira, against, in opposition.

Chron. — Chronology.

Chs. —- Churches.

Compar. or compar.; Comp.t or

[sand.

CIO. (contracted, M.).— A thou-

Con. Cr. or C.C.} — Contra credit.

Cic. — Cicero.

Conch. — Conchology.

Circ. — Circle or circles.

Cong. or C. — Congress.

C.J.— Chief Justice. C.J.C. — Caius Julius Cesar.

Conj. or conj. — Conjunction.

Cl. — Chlorine.

Const. or Cons.t — Constable-

Cl. — Claudius; Clergyman. Cl.t or Clk. — Clerk.

Contr. or contr. — Contraction.

Cl. Dom. Com. — Clerk of the

Cop. — Coptic.

Cit. — Citizen.

House of Commons.

Cong. — Congius, a gallon. Conn. or Con.t — Connecticut. Constitution.

Cor. — Corinthians.

Cld. or eld. — Cleared.

Cor. or cor. — Corner.

CM. — Nine hundred.

Corn. — Cornish.

Cn. — Cneeus.

Corol. — Corollary.

Co. — Company; Cobalt. Co. or co. ; Cy.t or cy.t—County.

Cor. Sec.

Coch. — Cochleare, a spoonful.

C.P. — Common Pleas.

Secy.f — Corre-

sponding Secretary.

Col. — Colonels Colossians.

C.P.— Court of Probate.

Col. — Column.

C.P.S.— Custos Privati Sigil,

Cold.t or cold.t — Colored.

Keeper of the Privy Seal.

Coll. — Collector.

C.R.— Carolus Rex, King Charles.

Coll. — Collega, Colleague.

C.R. — Custos Rotulorum, Keeper

Coll. — Collegium, College.

Com.— Commerce; Committee; Commentary; Commissioner; Commodore.

of the Rolls.

C.R.P. — Calendarium rum Patentium,

Rotulo-

Calendar of

the Patent Rolls.

Com. or com. — Commune.

Cr. — Chromium.

Comdg. — Commanding.

Cr. — Creditor; credit.

Com. Arr. — Committee of Ar-

Crim. Con. — Criminal ‘conver-

rangements.

Comp. or

comp. — Compare;

compound.

sation.

Crit. — Criterion, criteria. Crit. Rev. — Critical Review.

p. 295

282

APPENDIX.

C.S. — Court of Sessions.

Dec. or dec. — Declension.

C.S. — Custos Sigil, Keeper of

Dec. or dec. — Declination.

the Seal.

Deg. or deg. — Degree, degrees.

Ct. — Count.

Del. — Delaware; Delegate.

Ct.f or Conn. — Connecticut.

Del. or del. — Delineavit, drew.

Ct. cr ct. — Cent; Court.

Dem. — Democrat, Democratic.

Cts. or cts. — Cents.

Dem. or dem. — Demonstrative

Cu. — Cuprum (Copper).

Cub. or cub. — Cubic.

(pronoun).

Den. — Denmark.

curt. or cur.t — Current.

Dep. — Deputy.

C.W. — Canada West.

Dept. or dept.; Dep.f or dep.t —

Cwt. or cwt. — Hundred-weight.

Department.

Cy.t or cy.t — County.

Deut. — Deuteronomy.

Cyclo. — Cyclopedia.

D.F.— Dean of Faculty.

D.— Decius; Dutch.

Dft. or Deft.+ — Defendant.

D. — Didymium.

D.G. — Dei gratia, by the grace

D.— Five hundred.

D. — Five hundred thousand. D. or d. — Decime, decimes.

of God.

D.G. — Deo gratias, thanks to

God.

D. or d. — Denarius, a penny.

Diam. or diam. —- Diameter.

D. or d. — Denarit, pence.

Dict. — Dictator; Dictionary.

D. or d. — Denier, deniers.

Dim. or dim. — Diminutive.

D. or d. — Died.

Dis. or dis. — Distance, distant. Dise. or disc.; Disct.f or disct. ;f

D.f or d.t; Di. or di. — Dimes.

D.t or d.f; Deg. or deg. — Degree or degrees. | D.t or d.t; Diam. or diam. —

Dis.t or dis.t — Discount. Diss. or diss. — Dissertation.

Dist. or dist. — District. Dist.-Atty. — District-Attorney.

Diameter.

D. or d.; da.t dy.}— Day, days.

Div. — Division.

da.f or dr. — Daughter.

Div. or div. — Dividend. D.M. — Doctor of Music.

Dan. — Daniel; Danish. Dart. — Dartmouth.

Do. or do. — Ditto, the same.

Dat., dat. or D. — Dative (case).

Doct.f D.} or Dr. — Doctor.

D. B. or Domesd. B.

— Domes-

day-book.

D.C. — Da Capo, again. D.C. — District of Columbia.

Dol., dol., or doll.f — Dollar. Dols. or dols. — Dollars. ~D.O.M. — Deo optimo maximo, to God, the best, the greatest.

D.C.L. — Doctor of Civil Law.

Dor. — Doric.

D.D. — Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor

Doz. or doz. — Dozen, dozens.

of Divinity. Dea. — Deacon.

Dec. ~ De3ember.

D.P. — Doctor of Philosophy. Dpt. — Deponent.

Dr.t — Dear.

p. 296

ABBREVIATIONS.

Dr. — Debtor; Doctor. Dr. or dr. — Dram, drams. dr. — daughter.

D.T. — Doctor Theologie, Doc- . tor of Divinity.

Dub. — Dublin.

Dub. Univ. Mag. — Dublin University Magazine.

D.V. — Deo volente, God willing. Dwt. or dwt. — Pennyweight. Dy.{ or d. — Day, days. E. — Two hundred & fifty (anc.). E.{ — Earl.

E. (after titles). — Edinburgh. E. — Erbium; East.

E. by S. — East by south. — Eagle, eagles. E. or e. E. or e. — Ecu, ecus. ea. — Each.

East. Isl. — Eastern Islands. E.B. — English Bible (common). Eben. — Ebenezer.

Ecc.t or Eccles. — Ecclesiastical. Eccl. — Ecclesiastes. Ecclus. — Ecclesiasticus.

Eclec. Mag. — Eclec. Magazine. Eclec. Rev. — Eclec. Review. Ed. — Editor. Eds. — Editors. — Ed.t or ed.f — Edition.

Edin. or Ed.¢ — Edinburgh. Edit. or edit. — Edition. Edm. — Edmund. Edw. — Edward.

E.E. — Errors excepted. E.E. — Ell or ells English. £. Fl. — Ell or ells Flemish. E. Fr. — Ell or ells French. E.G.{ or E.g.3 e.g. or ex. g.f — Exempli gratia, for example.

Eg.t — Egypt. E.I. — East Indies.

E.I.C. — East-India Company.

(283

E.I. M. Coll. — East- India Military College.

Elec. — Electricity. Eliz. — Elizabeth.

E. lon. — East longitude. E.N.E. — East-north-east. Ency. — Encyclopedia. Eng. — England, English. _ Engd. or engd. — Engraved. Ent. — Entomology.

Ent. or ent. — Entrance. [nary.

Env. Ext. — Envoy ExtraordiEp. or Epis.t — Epistle. Eph. — Ephesians; Ephraim. E.S. — Ell or ells Scotch. E.S.E. — East-south-east.

~ Esq. — Esquire. Esqs. — Esquires. Esth. — Esther.

E.T. — English Translation

et al. — Ht alibi, and elsewr ere. et al. — Ht alii, and others. et seq. — Ht sequentia, and what follows.

ete.¢ or &c. — Et ceteri, et cetere, et cetera, and others; and so forth.

Eth, — Ethiopic.

Evang. — Evangelical. Eve.t or eve.;f Even. or even. — Evening.

Ex. — Example.

Exe. — Excellency; Exception.

Exch. — Exchequer. Exclam. — Exclamation. Exec. or Exr.} — Executor.

Exec. Com. — Executive Committee.

Execx. — Executrix. Exod. or Ex.t — Exodus.

Exon. D. — Exeter Domesday. book.

p. 297

284

APPENDIX.

Ez. — Ezra. Ezd. — Ezdra. Ezek. — Ezekiel. F. — Fluorine. F. — Forty (anc.).

F. — Forty thousand (anc). F. or f. — Feminine (gender).

F. or f. — Fiat, let it be made.

F. or f. m. — Fiat mixtura, tet a mixture be made.

Fol. or fol.; Fo. or fo.t; F.{ or f.{ — Folio, folios.

For. — Foreign.

For. Quar. Rev. — Foreign Quarterly Review.

Fort. — Fortification.

F. or f. — Florin, florins.

Fr. — France, French.

F.f f.7 Fy. or fr. — Franc, franes.

Fr.t or Fran. — Francis.

F.f¢ or f.;+ Ft. or ft.— Foot, feet.

Fr. or fr. — Franc, francs.

F., Fr.¢ Fri. or Frid.f — Friday.

fr. or fi.f — From.

Fa.t F1.t Fla. or Flor.— Florida. Fahr. — Fahrenheit.

Far. or f. — Farthing, farthings.

F.A.S. — Fellow of the Antiqua-rian Society.

Fath. or fath.; Fth.¢ or fth.ft— Fathom or fathoms.

F.D. — Fidei Defensor, Defender of the Faith.

F.t or Fl. E.— Flemish ell or ells. Fe. — Ferrum (Iron). Feb. — February.

Fem. or fem.; F. or f.— Feminine. ff. — The Pandects.

F.E.S. — Fellow of the Entomological Society.

F.G.S. — Fellow of the Geologi-

cal Society.

F.H.S.— Fellow of the Horti cultural Society. Fig. or fig. — Figure, figures.

Fig. or fig. — Figuratively.

Fin. — Finland.

F.R.A.S. — Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.

Fras. Mag. — Fraser’s Magazine. Fr. E. — French ell or ells.

Fred. — Frederic or Frederick. Freq. or freq. — Frequentative.

F.R.G.S. — Fellow of the Royal

Geographical Society.

‘Fri. — Friday.

¥.R.S. — Fellow of the Royal Society.

P.R.S. E. — Fellow of the Royal Society, Edinburgh. F.R.S. L. — Fellow of the Royal . Society, London. F.R.S.L. — Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.

F.S.A.— Fellow of the Society

of Arts. F. or f.s.a.— Fiat secundum artem, make it according to art.

F.S.A. E. — Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, Edinburgh.

Finn. — Finnish.

Ft. or ft.

Fir. or fir. — Firkin, firkins.

Ft. or ft. — Fort.

— Foot, feet.

Fi. or fi. — Flourished.

Fth.¢ fth.t

Fl. E. — Flemish ell or ells.

Fur. or fur. — Furlong, furlongs.

— Fathom, fathoms.

Flor. or Fla. — Florida.

Fut. or fut. — Future (tense).

¥.L.S. — Fellow of the Linnean

Society.

cal Society.

p. 298

ABBREVIATIONS.

285

G.— Four hundred (anc.).

G. — Forty thousand (anc.).

Griesb. — Griesbach. — Gross. Gro. or gro.

G.— Gaius; Gellius.

Grot. — Grotius.

; Genitive (case). G. — Glucinum G. or g. — Guinea, guineas.

Gtt. or gtt.— Gutta, a drop. Gtt. or gtt. — Gutte, drops.

G.{ Ger. or Germ.t — Germany,

_H. — Two hundred (ane.).

G. or g. — Gulf. German.

Ga. or Geo. — Georgia. Gal. — Galatians.

Gal. or gal. — Gallon, gallons. Gall.t or gall.t— Gallon, gallons. G.B. — Great Britain. |

G.C.B.— Grand Cross of the Bath.

G.C.H.— Grand Cross of Hano ver.

Gen. — General; Geneva. Gen. — Genesis (Book of). Gen. or gen. — Genitive (case). Gent. — Gentleman.

Gent. Mag. — Gentleman’s Magazine.

G. gr. or g. gr. — Great gross. Geo. — George; Georgia.

Geog. or Geo.t — Geography. Geol. — Geology. Geom. — Geometry.

Ger. — Germany, German. Ger. or ger. — Gerund. Gi. or gi. — Gill, gills. Gib. — Gibraltar. Glas. — Glasgow.

Goth. or Go.¢ — Gothic. Gott. — Géttingen. Gov. — Governor.

Gov.-Gen. — Governor-General. G.R. — Georgius Rex, King George.

Gr. — Greek. Gr. or gr. — Grain, grains. Gram. — Grammar.

Guin. or guin.— Guinea, guineas.

H. — Two hundred thousand. H. — Hydrogen.

H. or h. — Harbor, height. H. or h. — Hour, hours.

h. — Husband.

Hab. — Habakkuk. Hag. — Haggai.

Ham. Coll. — Hamilton College Hants. — Hampshire.

Harv. or Har.t — Harvard. H.B.C.—Hudson’sBay Company. H.B.M. — His or Her Britannic Majesty.

Hdkf. or hdkf. — Handkerchief.

h.e. — Hoc est, that is, or this is. Heb. — Hebrew; Hebrews. Hebr.t — Hebrew; Hebrews.

H.E.1.C. — Honorable East-India Company.

Hep. sulph. — Hepar sulphuris. Her. — Heraldry.

Hf.-bd. or hf.-bd. — Half-bound.

Hg. — Hydrargyrum (Mercury). Hhd. or hhd.; Hd.f or hd.f — Hogshead, hogsheads. Hil. — Hilary.

Hind. — Hindostan.

Hist. — History; Historical.

H.J.S. — Hic jacet sepultus, Here lies buried.

H.M. — His or Her Majesty. H.M.P. — Hoc monumentum posuit, erected this monument. H.M.S. — His or Her Majesty’s Ship or Service.

p. 299

286

APPENDIX.

Hon. — Honorable.

III.¢ or IV. — Four; fourth.

Hond.t or hond.¢ — Honoted.

ij. — Two (med.).

Hort. — Horticulture.

Ill. — Hlinois.

Hos. — Hosea.

Illus. — Illustration.

H.P.— Half-pay.

Imp. or imp. — Imperial.

H.R.—House of Representatives.

Imper. or imper. — Imperative

H.R.E. — Holy Roman Emperor.

H.R H. — His Royal Highness.

HLR.LP. — Hic requiescit in pace, Here rests in peace. H.S. — Hic situs, Here lies.

Impf.t

Imp.t or

imp.t — Impersonal (verb).

In. or in. — Inch, inches. |

hum. or humb. — Humble.

Inch. — Inchoative (verb).

Hund. or hund.; Hun.t hun.t —

incog. — Incognito, unknown.

Hundred, hundreds.

impf.t — Imperfect (tense).

Impers. or impers.;

Hrs.f or hrs.;f H. or h.— Hours.

Incor. or incor. — Incorporated.

1. — Iod'ne.

T. — One thousand (anc.).

Ind. —- India, Indian; Indiana. . Ind. Ter. — Indian Territory.

I. If. II]. — One, two, three; or

Indef. or indef. — Indefinite.

I.¢ Is.¢ or Isl. — Island.

Indic. or indic.; Ind.¢ or ind.t — Indicative (mood).

Ia. In.{ or Ind. — Indiana.

Infin. or infin.; Inf.¢ or inf.t —

first, second, third.

Ib. or ib.3 Ibid.t or ibid.{ — Jbzdem, in the same place.

10.t (by contraction, D.).— Five _

(mood).

Imperf. or imperf.;

Infinitive (mood).

in lim. — Jn limine, at the outset. in loc.| — im loco, in the place;

on the passage.

hundred.

I0C.f or DC. — Six hundred.

LN.R.I. — Jesus Nazarenus, Rea

IDCC.f or DCC. — Seven hun-

Judeorum, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.

dred.

I0CCC.t or

DCCC. — Eight

hundred.

Ins.-Gen. — Inspector-General.

IOCCCC.f or DCCCC. — Nine

Insep. or insep. — Inseparable. inst. — Instant, of this month.

hundred.

_ 10. — Five thousand.

Int. or int. — Interest.

1000.7. — Fifty thousand. Icel. or Ice.t—Iceland, Icelandic.

Ich. — Ichthyology.

Interj. or interj.; Int.¢ or int.+ — Interjection.

in trans. — Jn transitu, on the

Id. or id. — dem, eadem ; iidem, eedem, the same (author or

authors).

Ins. — Inspector.

Le. or i.e. — dd est, that is. L.H.S.— Jesus hominum Salvator, Jesus, the Saviour of men.

passage.

Io. — Iowa. Ion. — Ionic.

I.0.0.F. — Independent Order of Odd Fellows. Ipecac. — Ipecacuanha.

p. 300

287

ABBREVIATIONS.

Ir. — Iridium. Ir. — Irish.

Judge-Adv. — Judge-Advocate. |

Ire. or Iv. — Ireland. Irreg. or irreg. — Irregular.

Jul. — Julius. Jul.f{ — July.

Jul. Per. — Julian Period.

Isa. — Isaiah.

Jun.j — June.

It. or Ital.t — Italy.

Jun. or jun. — Junior. Jus. or Just.t — Justice.

Isl. or isl; Is. is.t L+ — Island. Ital. or It.t — Italian; Italic.

Itin. — Itinerary. LV. — Four or fourth. 1X. — Nine or ninth. J. — Judge; Julius. j-— One (med.). J.A. — Judge-Advocate. Jac. — Jacob. Jam. — Jamaica. Jan. — January. Jap. — Japan.

Jas. or Ja.t — James. J.C.— Julius Cesar.

J.C.D. — Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor of Civil Law.

J.D. —Jurum Doctor, Doctor of - Laws.

Jer. — Jeremiah.

J.H.S. — Jesus hominum Salvator, Jesus, the Saviour of men.

Jno.{ — John.

Jona. — Jonathan. Jos. — Joseph. Josh. — Joshua. Jour. — Journal.

J.P. — Justice of the Peace. J. Prob. — Judge of Probate. J.R. — Jacobus Rex, King James. Jy.t jet; Jun. or jun. — Junior. J.U.D. or J.V.D. — Juris utriusgue Doctor, Doctor of both Laws (of the Canon and the Civil Law). Jud. — Judith. Judg. -- Judges

Jun. — Junius.

Jus. P. — Justice of the Peace. Just, — Justinian. K. — Kalium (Potassium). K. — King.

K. — Two hundred & fifty (ane. ).

K.— Two hundred and fifty thousand (anc.).

K.A. — Knight of St. Andrew, in Russia.

K.A.N—. Knight of Alexander Newski, in Russia. Kan. — Kansas.

K.B. — King’s Bench. K.B. — Knight of the Batn.

K.B.A. — Knight of St. Bento d’ Avis, in Portugal.

K.B.E. — Knight of the Black Eagle, in Prussia.

K.C.!— King’s Council.

. of the Crescent, — Knight K.C in Turkey.

K.C.B. — Knight Commander of the Bath.

K.C.H. — Knight Commander of Hanover.

K.C.S. — Knight of Charles NIL. of Spain.

K.E. — Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark.

Ken.t or Ky. — Kentucky.

K.F. — Knight of Ferdinand of Spain.

K.F.M. — Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Sicily.

p. 301

288

APPENDIX.

K.G. — Knight of the Garter.

K.G.C. — Knight of the Grand Cross.

K.G.C.B. — Knight of the Grand

Cross of the Bath.

K.G.F.— Knight of the Golden Fleece, in Spain. K.G.H. — Knight of the Guelph

of Hanover.

K.G.V. — Knight of Gustavus Vasa of Sweden. K.H. — Knight of Hanover.

Kil. or kil. — Kilderkin, kilder Kins.

Kingd. or kingd.; Km.t+ or km.+ — Kingdom.

K.J.— Knight of St. Joachim. K.L. or K.L.A. — Knight of Leopold of Austria.

K.L.H. — Knight of the Legion of Honor.

K.M. — Knight of Malta.

Km.f or km. — Kingdom. K. Mess. — King’s Messenger. K.M.H. — Knight of Merit, in Holstein. K.M.J.— Knight of Maximilian

Joseph of Bavaria. K.M.T. — Knight of Maria Theresa of Austria.

K.N. — Know Nothing. Knick. — Knickerbocker.

K.N.S. — Knight of the Royal North Star, in Sweden. Knt., Kt. or K.t — Knight. K.P. — Knight of St. Patrick. K.R.E. — Knight of the Red Ea gle, in Prussia.

K.S.— Knight of the Sword, in

Sweden.

K.S.A. — Knight of St. Anne of Russia.

K.S.E.— Knight of St. Esprit, in France. K.S.F. — Knight of St. Fernando of Spain.

K.S.F.M. — Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Naples. K.S.G.— Knight of St. George of Russia.

K.S.H. — Knight of St. Hubert of Bavaria. K.S.J.— Knight of St. Januarius of Naples.

K.S.L. — Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia.

K.S.M. & 8. G. — Knight of St. Michael and St. George of the

Ionian Islands. K.S.P. — Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland.

K.S.S.— Knight of the Southern Star of the Brazils. K.S.S.— Knight of the Sword, in Sweden.

K.S.W.— Knight of St. Wladimir of Russia.

K.T. — Knight of the Thistle. Kt.¢ — Knight. K.T.S. — Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal.

K.W. — Knight of William of the Netherlands.

K.W.E. — Knight of the White Eagle, in Poland.

Ky. — Kentucky. L. — Fifty or fiftieth.

L. — lifty thousand (anc.). L.— Latin; Lucius; Lithium.

L. (after titles). — London.

L. or 1. — Lake; lane. L. or 1. — Line, lines; link, links.

L.t or 1.;+ Lea. or lea.; Leag.t or leag.t — League, leagues.

p. 302

ABBREVIATIONS.

289

Lit. or lit. — Literally.

L. or L3 Lib. or lib. — Liber,

Liv. or Liverp.; Lpool.f or Lpl.j

book.

— Liverpool.

L.{ or L.;$ Lib.t or lib.;$ Lb., Ib. or fh. — Libra or hbre, pound

Liv. or liv. — Livre, livres.

or pounds in weight.

LL.B. — Legum Baccalaureus Bachelor of Laws.

L.t £, or Lt — Libra or libre,

pound or pounds sterling.

LL.D. — Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws.

iia. — Lantanum.

1.1. — Loco laudato, in the place

La. or Lou.t — Louisiana.

quoted.

Ladp. — Ladyship.

L.N.E.S. — Ladies’ Negro Edu-

Lam. — Lamentations.

cation Society.

Lat. — Latin.

Lon. or lon.; Long.f or long.t —

Lat. or lat. — Latitude.

Longitude.

Lb., lb. or Ih. — Pound or pounds

Lond. or Lon.t — London.

weight.

L.C. — Lord Chancellor.

Lou.t — Louisiana.

L.C. — Lower Canada.

L.P. — Large paper.

l.c. — Loco citato, in the place

L.S. — Locus sigilli, place of the

cited.

Le. — Lowercase. .

L.C.J. — Lord Chief Justice.

seal. L.S. — Left side. — L.s.d.— Livres, sous, deniers.

L.t or £,s. d. — Pounds, shil-

L.D. — Lady-Day. Ld. or L.¢ — Lord.

lings, pence.

Ldp. or Lp.¢ — Lordship.

Lt.¢ — Lieutenant.

Lea. or lea. — League, leagues.

Lt. Inf. — Light Infantry.

Leg. — Legate.

LX. — Sixty or sixtieth.

Legis. or Leg.t — Legislature.

LXL. — Ninety (anc.).

Leip. — Leipzig or Leipsic.

LXX. — Seventy or seventieth.

Lev. — Leviticus (Book of).

LXX.—The Septuagint ( Version

of the Old Testament).

Leyd. — Leyden.

LXXX. — Eighty or eightieth.

L.IJ. — Long Island.

Li. or L. — Lithium.

M. — Mille, a thousand.

Lib. — Librarian.

M. — Million.

Lib. or lib. — Liber, book.

M. — Manlius; Marcus.

Lieut. or Lt.| — Lieutenant.

M. — Martius; Mutius.

Lieut. Col.—Lieutenant-Colonel.

M. or Mon. — Monday.

Lieut.-Gen. -— Lieutenant-Gene-

M. or Mons. — Monsieur. M.t or Marg. — Marquis.

ral.

Lieut.-Gov. —

Lieutenant-Go

M. or m. — Manipulus, handful. M. or m.—Mensurd, by measure.

vernor.

Lit. — Literary.

M. or m. — Mizxtura, a mixture.

Lit. —- Literary Magazine.

M. or m. — Mix. 19

p. 303

290

APPENDIX.

M. or m. —- Mile, miles.

M.C. — Master-Cummandant.

M.f M. or m. — Meridies, noon.

M.C. — Member of Congress.

M. or m.; Mas.t or mas.;+ Mase.

M.D. — Medicine Doctor, Doctor

or rnasc.—Masculine (gender).

of Medicine.

M.{ or m.;f Mi. or Mi. — Mill,

Md. — Maryland.

mills.

Mdlle. or Mile.t — Mademoiselle.

M. or m.; Min. or min. — Minute, minutes.

Meas. — Measure.

M.t m.;¢ Mo. or mo. — Month, months.

Mech. — Mechanics.

Med. — Medicine.

m. — Married.

Med. or med. — Medical.

M.A. — Master of Arts.

Mem. — Memento, remember.

M.A. — Military Academy.

Mem.— Memorandum,

Ma.— Minnesota.

Me. — Maine.

Memo-

randa.

Ma. or Mg. — Magnesium.

Merc. — Mercury.

Mace. or Mac.t — Maccabees.

Messrs. or MM.t — Messieurs,

Mad. — Madam.

Gentlemen.

Mad. — Madrid.

[sity.

Met. — Metaphysics.

Mad. Univ. — Madison Univer-

Metaph. — Metaphor. _ [rically.

Mag. — Magazine.

Metaph. or metaph. — Metapho-

Maj. — Major.

Meteor. — Meteorology.

Maj. Gen. — Major-General.

Meth. — Methodist.

Mal. — Malachi.

Mex. — Mexico or Mexican.

M.A.L.A. — Mechanic Appren-

Mg. — Magnesium.

tices’ Library Association.

Mam. — Mamercus. Man. — Manasses (Book of). Manch. — Manchester. Mar.t — March.

M.-Goth. — Mceso-Gothic. M.H.S. — Massachusetts Historical Society. M.H.S. — Member of the Historical Society.

March. — Marchioness.

Mi. or mi. — Mill, mills.

Marg. Tran. — Marginal Trans-

Mic. — Micah.

lation.

Mich. — Michael; Michaelmas.

Marq. — Marquis.

Mich. — Michigan.

Masc. or masc. -~- Masculine.

Mid. — Midshipman.

Mass. or Ms.t — Massachusetts.

Mid. or mid. — Middle (voice).

Math. — Mathematics; Mathematician.

Mil. — Military. Min. — Mineralogy.

Matt. or Mat.t — Matthew.

Min. or min. — Minute, minutes.

M.B. — Medicine Baccalaureus,

Min. Plen. — Minister Plenipo-

Bachelor of Medicine.

M.B. — Musice

Baccalaureus,

Bachelor of Music.

tentiary.

Miss. or Mi.t —- Mississippi. Miss. Sta. — Missionary Station.

p. 304

ABBREVIATIONS.

M.L.A. — Mercantile- Library

291

M.T.C. or M. Tull. Cic. ~— Mar-

cus Tullius Cicero.

Association.

Mls.f or mls.t — Mills.

Mus. — Museum; Music.

MM.t — Messieurs, Gentlemen.

Mus. D. — Doctor of Music.

MM. — Two thousand.

M.W.— Most Worthy.

Mme. — Madame.

M.W.S. — Member of the Wer-

M.M.S. — Moravian Missionary

nerian Society.

Myth. — Mythology.

Society.

M.M.S.S. — Massachusettensis Medicine

Societatis

Socius,

N. — Nine hundred (ane.).

N. — Nine thousand (anc.).

Fellow of the Massachusetts

N.— Nitrogen; North.

Medical Society.

N., Nom. or nom. — Nominative.

Mn. — Manganese.

N. or n. — Name, noun.

Mo. — Missouri.

N. or n.; Neut. or neut.—Neuter. N. or n. — Note, notes. N.f n.3;t Na. or na. — Nail, nails.

Mo. —- Molybdenum.

Mo. or mo. — Month, months. Mob. — Mobile.

N.t or n.3$ No. — Number.

Mod. — Modern.

n. — Near.

Mon. — Monday.

N.A. or N. Am.f — North Ame-

Mons. — Monsieur, Sir.

rica, North American.

Morn. or morn. — Morning.

M.P.— Member of Parliament.

Na. — Natrium (Sodium). Na. or na. — Nail, nails.

M.P. — Member of Police.

Nah. — Nahum.

Mr. — Mister.

Nat. — National; Natural. Nath. — Nathanael or Nathaniel.

. M.R.A.S.— Member of the Royal Asiatic Socicty.

M.R.C.S.— Member of the Royal

N.B. — North Britain.

College of Surgeons. M. R. I. — Member of the Royal

M.R.1.A. — Member of the Royal

Review.

N.C.¢ — New Church.

Irish Academy.

N.C. — North Carolina.

Mrs. — Mistress. M.R.S.L.— Member of the Royal

Society of Literature. M.S. — Memorie sacrum, Sacred

N.E. — New England.

N.E. — North-east. Neb. — Nebraska.

Manu-

N. Eng.— New-Englander ( pu2.). Neh. — Nehemiah. nem. con. or nem. diss. — Ne-

MSS.— Manuscripts.

mine contradicente, or nemine

to the memory.

M.S. — Mood-stem.

— Manuscriptum,

script.

N.B. — Nota bene, mark well.

N. Brit. Rev. — North - British

Institution.

MS.

Naut. — Nautical. N.B. — New Brunswick.

Ms.+ — Massachusetts. Mt. -— Mount or mountain.

dissentiente; no one opposing, unanimously.

p. 305

292

APPENDIX.

Neth. — Netherlands.

0. — Ohio.

Neut. or neut.— Neuter (gender).

New Test. or N. T. — New Tes- . tament.

O. — Eleven (ane. ).

O. — Eleven thousand (anc.). O. — Oxygen.

N.F. — Newfoundland.

Os, 80T, or

N.H. — New Hampshire.

OOO. — Three

atoms of oxygen.

N H.H.S. — New-Hampshire Historical Society.

Ob. or ob. — Obiit, he or she died. . Obad. — Obadiah.

Ni. or Nk. — Nickle.

Obj. or ob.t — Objection.

N.J.— New Jersey.

Obj. or ob.t — Objective (case).

N.L. or N. lat. — North latitude.

Obs. — Observation.

N. 1. or n. 1.—- Non liquet, it does not appear.

Obs. — Observatory. Obs. or obs. — Obsolete.

NI.f or nl.t — Nail.

Obt.¢ or obedt. — Obedient.

Nls.f or nls.f — Nails.

Oct. — October.

N.M. — New Mexico.

0.F.— Odd Fellow, or Odd Fel-

_N.N.E. — North-north-east.

lows.

N.N.W. — North-north-west.

Old Test. or O.T. — Old Testa-

N.O. — New Orleans.

ment.

No. or no.} — Numero or nombre, number.

Nos. — Numbers.

Olym. — Olympiad.

Op. or op. — Opposite.

Nom. or nom. — Nominative.

Opt. — Optics.

Nov. — November.

Opt. or opt.; Optat.t or optat.t

N.P. — New Providence.

— Optative (mood).

N.P. — Notary Public.

Or. — Oregon.

N.S. — New Style (after 1752).

Ord. — Ordinary.

N.S. — Nova Scotia.

Ornith. — Ornithology.

N.T. — New Testament.

n.u.— Name or names unknown.

0.8. — Old Style (before 1752). Os. — Osmium.

Num. — Numeral. -

0.T.— Oregon Territory.

Num.

0.T. — Old Testament.

or Numb.f — Numbers

(Book of).

Numer. — Numerator.

0.U.A. — Order of United Americans.

Nux vom. — Nux vomica.

Oxf. — Oxford..

N.V.M. — Nativity of the Virgin

Oxon. — Oxonia, Ozxonii, Oxford. Oz. or oz. — Ounce, ounces.

Mary.

N. W. — North-west. N.Y. — New York.

N.Y.H.S. — New-York Historical

Society.

N.Y. Rev. — New-York Review.

N. Zeal. — New Zealand.

P. or G. — Four hundred (anc.).

P. — Four hundred thousand. P. — Phosphorus.

P. — Publius. P.t or p. — Page. P. or p.— Pint, pints; pole, poles.

p. 306

293

ABBREVIATIONS. |

P. or p. — Particula or pugillus, what is taken between the fingers.

Pers. or pers. pron. — Personal pronoun.

P.+ or p.3t Part. or part. — Par-

Persp. — Perspective.

Pet. — Peter.

ticiple.

P.t p.3;t Pi. or pi. — Pipe, pipes. P.t Pop. or pop. — Population.

P.A. or p.a. — Participial adjective.

Pers. or pers. — Person.

;

Pa.t or Penn. — Pennsylvania. P.A. or p. eq. — Partes equales, equal parts.

Pf.t or pf.f — Perfect (tense). —

Ph. D. or P. D.t — Philosophie Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. Phil. — Philip; Philippians.

Phil. — Philosophy. Phil. or phil. — Philosophically.

Phila. or Phil.t — Philadelphia.

Pal. — Palestine.

Philem. — Philemon.

Pamph. — Pamphleteer.

Phil. Mag. — Philosophical Ma-

Par. — Paragraph.

Par. or par. — Parish. Par. Pas. — Parallel passage or passages.

Parl. — Parliament.

Parl. or parl. — Parliamentary.

Part. or part. — Participle.

gazine.

Philom. — Philomathes, a lover of learning.

Philomath. — Philomathematicus, a lover of mathematics.

Phil.

Trans. — Philosophical

Transactions.

Partic. or partic. — Particle.

Phosph. — Phosphorus.

Pash. or pash. — Pashalic.

Phren. — Phrenology.

Pass, — Passive (voice).

P.H.S. — Pennsylvania Histori-

Payt. — Payinent.

cal Society.

Pb. — Plumbum (Lead).

Pi. or pi. — Pipe, pipes.

P.C. — Patres Conscripti, Con-

Pinx. or pxt.t — Pinwit, painted.

script Fathers; Senators.

Pk. or pk. — Peck.

P.C. — Privy Counsellor.

Pks. or pks. — Pecks.

Pd. — Palladium.

Pi. or pl. — Place.

Pd. or pd. — Paid.

Pl. or pl. — Plate or plates.

P.E.I. — Prince Edward Island.

PL. or pl.; Plur. or plur.— Plural.

Pen. or pen. — Peninsula.

Pl. or Pt.| — Platinum.

Penn. — Pennsylvania.

Plup. or plup.; Plupf.f or plupf.t

Pent. — Pentecost.

— Pluperfect.

Per. — Persia or Persian.

Piff. — Plaintiff.

per an.—Per annum, by the year.

Plur. or piur. — Plural.

per ct.f or per cent. — Per cen-

P.M. — Postmaster.

tum, by the hundred.

Perf. or perf.; Pfft or pfi.t — Perfect (tense).

Peri. — Perigee.

P.M. — Passed Midshipman.

P.M.f P.M. or p.m. — Post mer¢diem, afternoon, evening. P M.G. — Postmaster-General

p. 307

294

APPENDIX.

P.M.G. — Professor of Music in

Pron. or pron. adj. — Pronominal adjective.

Gresham College.

Prop. — Proposition.

P.O.— Post-Office.

Poet. or poet. — Poetically. Pop. or pop. — Population. Port. — Portugal or Portuguese. Posit. or posit. — Positive. © Pot. or pot. — Pottle, pottles. P.P. — Pulvis patrum, the Jesuits’-Lbark in powder.

P.P.C. — Pour prendre congé,

Prot. — Protestant.

Pro tem. — Pro tempore, for the time being.

_ Prov. — Proverbs; Provost. Prov. or prov. — Province.

prox. — Proximo, next (month). Prp.f or prp.ft — Preposition. P.R.S. — President of the Royal Society.

to take leave.

Pp. or pp. — Pages.

Prus. —- Prussia or Prussian.

P. p. or p. p. — Past participle.

P.S. — Participle-stem.

P. pr. or p. pr. — Participle pre-

P.S.— Post scriptum, Postscript. P.S. — Privy Seal.

sent.

- Ppt. or ppt. — Preparaius, prepared.

Ps. — Psalm or Psalms. P.T. or p. t. — Post-town.

P.R. — Populus Romanus, the

Pt.¢ — Platinum.

Roman people. P.R. — Porto Rico.

Pt. or pt. — Pint.

Pt. or pt. — Part; port; point.

pr.t — Per, by the.

Pts. or pts. — Pints.

Pr. or pr. — Pronounce. Pr.f or pr.t — Province.

P. Th. G. —- Professor of Theo-

Pr.t or pr.f; Pron. or pron. —

P.V. or p.v. — Post-village.

Pronoun.

Pr.f or pr.;f Pret. or pret. — Preterite (tense).

Pr. p. or pr. p. — Present participle.

P.R.A. — President of the Royal Academy.

Pref. — Preface. Prep. or prep. — Preposition.

Pres. or pres. — Present (tense).

logy in Gresham College.

Pub. — Publisher; Publication;

published. . Pub. Doc. — Public Documents. Puls. — Pulsatilla.

Pun. or pun. — Puncheon: puncheons. Pwt. or pwt. — Pennyweight, penny weights.

Q. — Five hundred (ane.).

Q. — Five hundred thousand.

Pres. — President.

Q.— Quintus; Quintius.

Presid. — Presidency. Pret. — Preterite (tense).

Q. — Queen.

Prim. or prim. — Primary.

Q. or q.— Quadrans, a farthing;

Prob. — Problem.

Prof. — Professor.

Pron. or pron. — Pronoun. -

Q., Ques. or Quest.tf — Question. quadrantes, farthings.

Q.f or g.f Qu.f or qu.;f Qy. or qy- — Quere, inquire; query.

p. 308

ABBREVIATIONS.

q. — Quasi, as it were.

295

R. or r. — River.

Q.B. — Queen’s Bench.

R. or r. — Rod, rods.

Q.C. —- Queen’s College.

R. or r. — Rood, roods.

Q.C. — Queen’s Counsel.

R.f or r.{ — Rule.

Q.d. or q. d. — Quast dicat, as if

r. — Resides; retired; rises.

he should say; quas? dictum, as

R.A. — Royal Academy.

if said; quasi dixisset, as if he

R.A. — Royal Academician.

had said.

R.A. — Royal Arch.

Q.E. or g.e.— Quod est, which is.

R.A. — Royal Artillery.

Q.E.D. — Quod erat demonstran-

R.A. — Russian America.

dum, which was to be proved.

Q.E.F. — Quod erat factendum, which was to be done.

q. 1. — Quantum libet, as much as you please.

Q. Mess. — Queen’s Messenger.

Qm. or qm. — Quomodo, how, by what means.

q. p- or q. pl. — Quantum placet,

as much as you please.

Rad. — Radical. Rd.f or rd.f — Rod; rood. R.E. — Royal Engineers.

_ Re. or re. — Removed. Rec. — Recipe. . Recd. — Received. Recpt.} — Receipt.

Rec. Sec. or Secy.f — Recording

Secretary. Rect. — Rector.

Qr. or qr. — Quarter.

Ref. — Reformation; Reformed.

Qrs. or qrs. — Quarters.

Ref. Ch. — Reformed Church.

Q.S. — Quarter Sessions.

Ref. or ref. — Reference.

q.8. — Quantum sufficit, a suffi-

Reg. — Register, Registry.

cient quantity.

Qt. or qt. — Quart.

Reg. Prof. — Regius Professor.

Regr. — Registrar.

Qts. or qts. — Quarts.

Regt. — Regiment.

Quar. or Qu.t — Quarterly.

Rel. or rel. pron.; Rel. or rel. pr.

Ques. — Question.

— Relative pronoun.

Quint. — Quintilius.

Rem. — Remark or remarks.

q. Vv. —- Quantum vis, as much as

Rep. — Reporter.

you will.

Rep. — Representative.

q.v. — Quod vide, which see.

Repub. or Rep.t — Republic.

Qy. or qy. — Query.

Rev. — Reverend; Revelation.

R. — Eighty (anc.).

Rev. — Review.

R. — Eighty thousand (anc.).

Rhet. — Rhetoric.

R. — Recipe, take.

R.1. — Rhode Island.

R. — Regina, Queen.

R.LH.S. — Rhode-Island Histo

R. — Rex, King.

rical Society.

R. — Rhodium.

Richd. — Richard.

R.t or Rem.—Remark, Remarks.

R.M. — Royal Marines.

h.f or Russ. — Russia, Russian.

R.N. — Royal Navy.

p. 309

296

APPENDIX.

R.N.O.—Riddare af Nordstjerne, Knight of the Order of the Polar Star.

Ro. — Recto, right-hand page. Robt. — Robert.

S.f or s.;f Subst or subst. -— A

substantive (noun). S.f s.;f SS. or ss. — Senvs, half.

s.{ ss.f se. or scil. — Scélicet, to wit, namely.

Rom. — Romans (Book of). Rom, Cath. — Roman Catholic.

s.a.—Secundum artem, according

R.P. — Regius Professor, the

S.A. or S.Am.t—South America.

King’s Professor.

to art.

Sam. — Samaritan; Samuel.

R.P. — Respublica, Republic.

Sanse. or Sans.t — Sanscrit.

R.R. — Railroad.

§.A.S.—Societatis Antiquariorum

R.S. — Right side.

Socius, Fellow of the Society

R.S.S.— Regie Socretats Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society.

of Antiquarians.

Sat. or Sa.t — Saturday.

Rt. Hon. — Right Honorable.

Sax. — Saxon.

Rt. Rev. — Right Reverend.

Sax. Chron. — Saxon Chronicle.

Rt. Wpful. — Right Worshipful.

Sb. — Stibium (Antimony).

Ru. — Runic.

S.C. — Senatés Consultum, a de-

Russ. — Russia or Russian. R.W. — Right Worthy. R.W.O. — Riddare af Wasa Orden, Knight of the Order of Wasa. S.— Sextus; seven (anc.).

cree of the Senate.

8.C. — South Carolina.

Sc. or sc.; Ser.t or ser.f — Scruple, scruples.

So. or sc. — Sculpsit, engraved. sc. or scil. — Scilicet, namely.

S. — Solo (in Italian music). S.— Stem (of a word). S.— Sulphur; Sunday.

S. caps. — Small capitals. Sch. or sch.; Schr.t or schr.f

S. or So.t — South.

Schs. or schs. — Schooners.

Ph wh

S.t or s.f — See.

Sci. — Science.

. or 8. — Set, sets; sign, signs. . or s. — Solidus, a shilling.

Scip. — Scipio.

. or s. — Solidi, shillings.

Scot. — Scotland.

, or s. — Sou, sous. mM

— Schooner.

. or s.; Sec. or sec. — Second, seconds.

Sclav. — Sclavonic.

Scot. — Scotch or Scottish. Se. Pen. — Scandinavian Peninsula.

S. or s.; Sec.t or sec.;t Sect. or

Sculp. or seulp. — Sculpsit, (he

sect. — Section. SS. or ss.; Sects. or sects. —

S.E. — South-east.

Sections.

8.} or s.;f Ser. or ser. — Series. — SinS.t or s.;¢ Sing. or sing. gular (number)

or she) engraved.

Se. — Selenium.

Schol. — Scholium, a note. Schol. — Scholia, notes. Sec. or sec. — Second, seconds.

p. 310

ABBREVIATIONS.

Sec.f — Section. Sec. or Secy.t — Secretary. — Secretary of LegaSec. Leg. tion.

297

S.M. Lond. Soc. Cor. — Societatis Medice Londonensis Socius Cor. Corresponding Member of the

London Medical Society.

Sect. or sect. — Section. Sects. or sects. — Sections.

Sn. — Stannum (Tin). s.n. — Secundum naturam, ac-

Sen. — Senate; Senator.

So.f — South.

Select. — Selection or selections.

Sen. or sen. — Senior.

Sept. or Sep.f — September. Sept. — Septuagint. _ seq. or sq.f — Sequente, and inwhat follows.

seqq. or sqq.t — Sequentibus, and in the following (places).

Ser. or ser. — Series. Serg. — Sergeant.

Serg.-Maj. — Sergeant-Major. _ Serj. — Serjeant. Serv. — Servius. Servt. — Servant. Sex. — Sextus.

S.G. — South Georgia. Shak. — Shakspeare.

§.H.S. — Societatis Historie Socius, Fellow of the Historical Society.

Si. — Silicium or Silicon.

Sic. — Sicily or Sicilian.

Sim. or sim. — Similarly. Sing. or sing. — Singular.

S. Isl. — Sandwich Islands. S.J.C.—_Supreme Judicial Court.

cording to nature.

Soc. Isl. — Society Islands. Sol. — Solomon.

Sol. — Solicitor; Solution.

Sol.-Gen. — Solicitor-General.

— Song of Solomon. S. of Sol. South. Lit. Mess. — Southern

Literary Messenger.

South. Quar. Rev. — Southern Quarterly Review.

S.P. or s. p. — Seaport. S.P. or s. p. — Sine prole, without issue.

Sp. — Spain or Spanish.

§.P.A.S.— Societatis Philosophicas Americane Socius, Member of the American Philosophical Society.

S.P.G. — Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Sp. or sp. gr. — Specific gravity.

S.P.Q.R. — Senatus Populusque Romanus, the Senate and Roman people.

Sq. or sq. ft. — Square foot, feet. Sq. or sq. in. — Square inch or

§.L. — Solicitor at Law (Scot.). S.L. or S. lat. — South latitude.

Sq. or sq. m. — Square mile or

Sld. or sld. — Sailed. 5. L. P.gq. Preston. Soc. Hon. —

Sq. or sq. r. — Square rood ot

Societatis Literarie Philosophiceque Prestonensis Socius Honorarius, Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Preston.

inches.

miles.

roods.

Sq. or sq. yd. — Square yard. Sq. or sq. yds. — Square yards. sq. — In what follows. sqq-t — In the following (places).

p. 311

298

APPENDIX.

Sr.f— Sir. Sr.— Strontium. S.R.I.— Sacrum Romanum Imperium, the holy Roman empire.

S.R.S. — Societatis Regie Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society.

sand (anc.).

_T.— Technical (term).

T. — Tenor (tm music).

—

T.f or Tur.—Turkeyor Turkish.

SS. or ss. — Semis, half.

T.— Tutti, the whole band after

SS.f or ss.¢ — Scilicet, to wit.

S.S8. C. — Solicitor

before

the

Supreme Courts (Scotland). 5.S.E. — South-south-east.

S.S.W. — South-south-west.

a solo.

T. or t.3 Tn.¢ or tn.f — Town, township. T.ort.; Tom.f or tom.ft—Tome, tomes.

St. — Saint.

T. or t. — Ton, tons; tun, tuns.

St. or st. — Street; Strait.

T. or tr. — Trillo, a shake.

Stat. — Statute or statutes.

Ta. — Tantalum (Columbium).

S.T.D.— Sancte Theologie Doc-

Te. — Tellurium.

tor, Doctor of Divinity.

Ster. or ster.; Stg.f or stg.f — Sterling.

S.T.P.—Sancte Theologie Professor, Professor of Divinity. Sts. or sts. — Streets.

Subj. or subj.; Subjunct.f or subjunct.t — Subjunctive. _

T.— A hundred and sixty thou-

T.— Titus; Titius; Tullius.

S.S. — Sunday School. SS. or ss. — Sections.

T. — A hundred and sixty (anc.),

Tenn. or Ten.t — Tennessee Ter.— Territory.

Term. — Termination. Tex. — Texas.

Text. Rec. — Textus Receptus, the Received Text.

Th. — Thorium.

Th.t Thu.t Thurs. — Thursday.

Subst. or subst. — Substantive.

Theo. — Theodore.

Suff. or suff. — Suffix.

Theol. — Theology, Theological.

Su.-Goth. — Suio-Gothic.

Theoph. — Theophilus.

Sulph.— Sulphur or sulphurous.

Theor. —- Theorem.

Sup. — Supplement.

Thess. — Thessalonians.

Super. or super. — Superfine.

Thos. — Thomas.

Superl. or superl. — Superlative.

Thurs. — Thursday.

Supt. — Superintendent.

Ti. — Titanium.

Surg. — Surgeon; Surgery.

Tier. or tier. — Tierce, tierces.

Surg.-Gen. — Surgeon-General.

Tim. — Timothy.

Surv. — Surveyor.

Tit. — Titus.

Surv.-Gen. — Surveyor-General.

T.O. — Turn over. °

Sus. — Susannah.

Tob. — Tobit.

S.W. — South-west.

Tom.t or tom.f — Tome, tomes

Sw. — Sweden or Swedish.

Tonn. or tonn. — Tonnage.

Switz. — Switzerland.

Tr.— Terbium.

Syr. — Syria or Syriac.

Tr. or tr. — Transpose.

p. 312

299

ABBREVIATIONS.

Tr. —Trustee.

Trs.— Trustees.

V. or v. — Verb.

Tr. Brit. Mus. — Trustee of the

V.t orv.;{ Ver. or ver. — Verse,

Trans. or Tr.t — Translator.

V. or v.; Vi-t or vi.;t Vid.f or

British Museum.

Trans. or Tr.t — Translation. Trans. or trans. — Translated. Treas. or Tr.t — Treasurer. |

Trin. — Trinity.

T.S. — Tense-stem, or stem of the perfect tense.

Tues. or Tu.t — Tuesday. Tur.— Turkey or Turkish.

verses.

vv.{ — Verses.

vid.j — Vide, see.

V.t or v.;t Vil. or vil. — Village. V., Voc. or voc. — Vocative. V.t or v.;t Vol. or vol. — Volume.

v., vs. or vers. — Versus, against. Va. — Virginia. Vat. — Vatican.

U. — Uranium.

y.a.— Verb active. v. aux. — Verb auxiliary. y. def. — Verb defective. v. dep. — Verb deponent.

U.E.1. CG. — United East- India

V.D.M. — Verbi Dei Minister,

Turnp. — Turnpike. Tut. — Tutor.

Typ. — Typographer. U.C. — Upper Canada. Company.

V.C. — Vice-Chancellor.

Minister of God’s Word.

Doctor of both Laws.

Ven. — Venerable. Ver. or ver. — Verse, verses.

month.

V.g. or v.g.— Verbi gratid, for

U.J.C. — Utriusque Juris Doctor,

ult. — Ultimo, last; of the last U.K. — United Kingdom. um. — Unmarried. Univ. — University. U.S. — United States.

U.S.A. — United States-Army. U.S.A. — United States of America.

vers. — Versus, against.

example.

VI. — Six or sixth.

VII. — Seven or seventh. VIII. — Eight or eighth. VIIIIL.+ or IX. — Nine or ninth.

Vice-Pres. or V.P.t — Vice-President.

U.S. Lit. Gaz. — United- States

vy. imp. — Verb impersonal.

U.S.M. — United-States Mail. U,S.M.— United-States Marines. U.S.N. — United-States Navy. U.S.S. — United-States Ship.

y. irr. — Verb irregular.

Literary Gazette.

u.s. — Ut supra, as above. V. — Five or fifth.

V. — Five thousand (anc.). V.— Vanadium. V. — Victoria.

V.— Violin.

VV.— Violins.

y.in. or v.i.t—Verb intransitive. Vil. or vil. — Village. Vise., Vis. or V.t — Viscount.

viz. or vl.{ — Videlicet, to wit, namely.

v.n. — Verb neuter.

Vo. — Verso, left-hand page. Voc. or voc. — Vocative (case). Vol. or vol. — Volume. Vols. or vols. — Volumes

p. 313

300

APPENDIX.

V.R.— Victoria Regina, Queen Victoria.

XIIII.¢ or XIV. — Fourteen.

XV., XVI. — Fifteen, sixteen.

v.r.—Verb reflective.

XVII. — Seventeen.

v. tr. — Verb transitive.

XVIII. or XIIX.{ — Eighteen.

Vt. — Vermont.

XVIWI.t or XIX. — Nineteen.

Vul. — Vulgate (Version).

XX. — Twenty.

Vulg. or vulg. — Vulgar (expression).

XXI. — Twenty-one. XXII. — Twenty-two.

W.— Welsh; West.

XXX. — Thirty.

W. — Wolfram (Tungsten).

XXXX.+ or XL. — Forty.

w. — Wife.

XC. or LXL.f — Ninety.

W. or Wed. — Wednesday.

X.f or Xt. — Christ.

W.t or w.;t Wk. or wk.— Week.

Xmas.ft or Xm.t — Christmas.

Wash. — Washington.

Xn.f or Xtian.¢ — Christian.

West. Res. Coll. — Western Re-

serve College.

Westm. Rev. — Westminster Review.

w.f. — Wrong font.

Whf. or whf.;

Xnty.} or Xty.f — Christianity. Xper.t — Christopher.

Wf.t or wf. —

Wharf. W.I. or W. Ind.t — West Indies or West India.

Y.— A hundred and fifty (anc.).

Y.— A hundred and fifty thousand (anc.).

Y. — Yttrium.

Y.t y.t or yr. — Year. Y.B. or Yr.-Bk. — Year Book. Yd. or yd. — Yard.

Wis. or Wisc. — Wisconsin.

Yds. or yds. — Yards.

Wisd. — Wisdom (Book of).

y-t or yt — The.

Wks. or wks. — Weeks.

yTM-+ — Them.

W. lon. — West longitude.

y+ — Then.

Wm. or Will.¢ — William.

yTMt — Their; your.

W.M.S.—~ Wesleyan Missionary

y®+ — This.

Society.

yt-¢ — That.

W.N. W. — West-north-west.

Yrs. or yrs. — Years.

Wp. — Worship.

Yrs.t — Yours.

Wpful. — Worshipful.

W.S. — Writer to the Signet. W.S.W. — West-south-west.

W.T. — Washington Territory.

Z.-— Two thousand (ance.).

Z. — Two millions (anc. ). Z. or Zr.— Zirconium. Zech. — Zechariah.

Wi. or wt. — Weight.

Zeph. — Zephaniah.

X.— Ten or tenth.

Zn. — Zine.

h.— A thousand (ane.).

Zod]. — Zoélogy.

X. — Ten thousand (anc.).

&.— And.

XI., XU. — Eleven, twelve.

&c. or etc. — Et ceteri, et catera,

XII. — Thirteen.

et cetera, and the rest.

p. 314

301

SIGNS.

V.— MEDICAL, ARITHMETICAL, ALGEBRAIC, AND

Ana, equal parts of

each.

Right angle. Perpendicular.

Dram. J ATV

Greater than.

Per, each.

Less than.

The

At or to.

Dollar or dollars.

Rectangle.

Ounce.

Scruple.

The

pounds

Pound or

difference,

excess.

difference,

excess.

Shilling or shillings.

sterling.

dition.

Minus, less, in sub-

Parallelism. Equiangular.

Plus, more, in adti<

Triangle. | Angle.

Semis, half.

Pound.

OGwuwnse

Recipe, take of.

OrReER

-p 1A

GEOMETRICAL SIGNS.

Geometrical proportion.

Equivalent.

traction.

Into, in multiplica-

Sum or integral. Residual.

tion.

By, in division

Whence.

Equal to.

Positive or negative.

Signs in proportion.

Infinitely large.

The radical sign in

Proportionai to. Circle, or 860°,

evolution.

Degree.

ditfer-

Minute of arc.

ence; similitude.

Second of arc.

Unknown

Regular gle.

quadran-

Ratio between diam. and circumference.

Napier’s base.

p. 315

802

APPENDIX.

VI. — ASTRONOMICAL CHARACTERS. I.

THE TWELVE SIGNS OF THE

ZODIAC.

Aries, the Ram.

= . . Libra, the Balance.

So.

Taurus, the Bull.

. . Scorpio, the Scorpion.

Gemini, the Twins.

.. Sagittarius, the Archer.

Cancer, the Crab.

V3 ..

Leo, the Lion.

i .. Aquarius, the Waterman

TMm

Virgo, the Virgin.

«=

Mercury.

Iris.*

GB 0

Venus.

va -

Flora.*

Il.

Moon.

@ -

Parthenope.*

«.

Mars.

os »

Clio*

Ceres.*

Mosc... Irene.*

Pallas.*

Juno.*

Saturn.

Vesta.*

Kl -

Uranus.

oH Nome

oe ee Metis.*

Astreea.*

Neptune.

Hebe.*

Sun.

QO.

0...

THE LUNAR SIGNS.

New Moon.

First Quarter.

dé

-«

Conjunction.

«.

Opposition.

oO...

IV.

.. Pisces, the Fishes.

THE PLANETARY SIGNS.

Capricornus, the Goat.

®.

Full Moon.

Last Quarter.

ASPECTS OF THE PLANETS.

Sextile.

Ascending Node.

Trine.

DescendingNode.

Quartile.

©...

Part of Fortune.

* These and the other asteroids are now more commonly designated by a O inclosing the number indicating the order of their discovery.

p. 316

HINTS ON PREPARING COPY.

3803

HINTS ON

THE PREPARATION OF “COPY,” AND ON

PROOF-READING.

In preparing and bringing out a book for publication, a great number of persons are employed; each of them having to use more or less the brain, the hand, and the eye; to call into action the principles of mind, me-

chanism, and taste; to occupy, in short, his special department of duty and toil.

For our present purpose,

however, we will mention only three agents who play a prominent though an unequal part in the production of a book, and who have particularly to do with the mode in which it is executed. These are the author, the compositor, and the proof-reader; the producer of the ideas, the arranger of the types, and the corrector of the typographic errors.

Let us suppose, then, that the writer of a work, instead of transcribing it as many times as would be requisite for the perusal of his friends or his fellowmen, is desirous of saving himself this trouble, and of having a large number of copies put into their hands by means infinitely more rapid; namely, through the agency of the printing-press. Before, however, taking — this step, he will ascertain whether his manuscript im —be or, as it is technically called, “the copy”

p. 317

304

APPENDIX.

a suitable condition for being made out by the com-

positor and the proof-reader.

If it consists of orations, discourses, lectures, or poems, certain portions of which

have, for his own accomniodation in delivery, been underlined, but which are not to be printed in Italics or small capitals, he will carefully expunge all such

marks. He will examine if proper names and foreign or technical expressions, supposing them to occur, have

been correctly spelled and clearly written ; rectifying the inaccuracies, and making the obscure perfectly plain and legible. He will dot the 7’s, and cross the t’s, which, in the haste of composition, may have been

left imperfect; change such capital J’s and J’s as may

be confounded with each other; and re-form whatever letters may be blurred or ill-shapen, particularly the ss in the terminations of plural nouns. He will see whether the interlineations, if there be any, have been introduced with sufficient distinctness.

Should he make additions in the margin, or on the opposite or a separate

leaf, he will mark with a caret the place of insertion, and say whether they are designed as text for the body

of the matter, or as notes for the foot of the page ;

putting such or any other direction within a circle, that

it may be readily noticed. he

will

supply

them;

If points have been omitted, if erroneously made, correct

them. All words and phrases, which, for his own ease, he has abbreviated, he will write in full; and at the commencement of any sentence meant to begin a new paragraph, but not distinctly exhibited as such, he will

put the mark ({) appropriated for that purpose.

If, however, after all this care, an author find, on re-inspection, that the manuscript cannot without diffi-

p. 318

HINTS ON PREPARING COPY.

305

culty be deciphered, he will either fairly transcribe it himself, or cause it to be transcribed by a good penman. He, or his amanuensis, will write on only one side of the paper, and mark the number of each page, that the copy may admit of being cut into portions; put, if necessary, into the hands of several compositors; and, after having been set up, be re-arranged in

its proper order.

He will see that the orthography,

- the capitals, and the points, which were perhaps imper- |

fectly attended to in the original manuscript, be all . conformed to the best usages of the present day. He will distinguish the paragraphs by commencing each in a new line, and putting its first word at a greater distance from the edge of the paper, at the left hand, than the other lines, to prevent sentences which should be | separated from being brought together, or those which should be joined from being separated. On no account should the paragraphing be left to the compositor; it being unreasonable to expect him to perform a species of work for which no remuneration is given, and which peculiarly devolves on the writer himself. In the observations just made, we have assumed that an author takes all possible care to make his

manuscript clear and legible; and, no doubt, many

literary gentlemen are not ashamed to do their own work, instead of leaving it to be done, at the imminent

hazard of mistakes, by the compositor and the proofreader. But it is a well-known fact, at least to those conversant with subjects relating to the press, that manuscripts designed for publication are often found written so carelessly, or with so little regard to any

system of capitalizing and punctuation, as to render 20

p. 319

306

APPENDIX.

the labor of printing them vexatious, unsatisfactory, and unproductive, — first to the compositor, who, after

coming to many a dead halt, and troubling ad nauseam

his fellow-workmen, in attempting to decipher the copy, is obliged to creep his “slow length along,” with all the patience that may be supplied by the prospect of miserable earnings; then to the corrector of the press,

who, whatever may be his literary qualifications, is certainly not familiar with the unexpressed thoughts

of authors, and cannot find an explanation of their flourishes, their half-written words, or their peculiar

hieroglyphics, in any of the dictionaries at his command; and lastly to the master-printer, whose material

is blocked up by the slow progress of the work in

question, and whose pockets sometimes

suffer from

the cancelling of pages, which is not unfrequently as much attributable to scratches of the pen as to “ errors of the press,” -— as much owing to the carelessness of the author or his amanuensis, as to the incompetency

of the printer or his workmen.

We do not mean to

apologize for the blunders of compositors, or to excuse the negligence

and

ignorance of proof-readers, but

merely to express our sense of the injustice done to

the profession of typography, when authors who have

written illegibly, or who have themselves examined

the proof-sheets without detecting mistakes, throw the whole responsibility on the shoulders of others.

As a justification of our hardihood in thus laying down to authors instructions so minute and yet so

obvious, we quote a paragraph, which has recently

appeared in an English newspaper, showing the gross carelessness and utter want of thought manifested, on

p. 320

HINTS ON PREPARING COPY.

807

the part of some writers, in preparing their works for publication. The case referred to is, indeed, an extreme one; but its main feature —the illegibility of

— unhappily characterizes the manuscripts the copy

of many other distinguished men.

“The late Sharon Turner, author of the ‘History of the AngloSaxons,’ who received three hundred a year from Government as a literary pension, wrote the third volume of his ‘Sacred History of

the World’ upon paper which did not cost him a farthing. The copy consisted of torn and angular fragments of letters and notes; of covers of periodicals, — gray, drab, or green, — written in thick,

round hand over a small print; of shreds of curling paper, unctuous

with pomatum or bear’s grease; and of the white wrappers in which his proofs were sent from the printers. The paper, sometimes as thin as a bank-note, was written on both sides; and was so sodden with ink, plastered on with a pen worn to a stump, that hours were frequently wasted in discovering on which side of it certain sentences were written. Men condemned to work on it saw their dinner vanishing in illimitable perspective, and first-rate hands groaned over it a whole day for tenpence. One poor fellow assured the writer of this paper, that he could not earn enough upon it to pay his rent, and that he had seven mouths to fill besides his own. In the hope of mending matters in some degree, slips of stout white paper were sent frequently with the proofs; but the good gentleman could not afford to use them, and they never came back as copy.”

Satisfied that the manuscript is in a fit state to be read, the author employs a letterpress printer, giving him such directions as he thinks are necessary. The copy is then delivered to the compositor, whose province it is to put in type what the author has written. As soon as the workman has finished the setting-up of some eight, twelve, or more pages, according to the size of the paper to be used, and has arranged them in such a way that they may all be printed together,

he obtains a “proof,” or impression in ink, of the

p. 321

308

APPENDIX.

matter he has set up; and then lays it, along with the copy, on the corrector’s desk.

The obtaining of this proof-sheet implies, that the work of “composition,” or the arrangement of the types, is to some extent imperfect or erroneous; that the matter set up is not a true counterpart of the origina;l that blunders have been made, as even by the best of compositors they will be made, in a variety of particulars which need not here be enumerated.

Unless, from instructions previously received, or from an inspection of the manuscript, he has reason to believe that the author has a peculiar and unalterable taste in regard to certain minutia, — such as the style of type in titles and heads of chapters, the ortho-

graphy, punctuation, use of capitals, &c., — the proofreader, if faithful to his duty, proceeds to the labor of correction on the principle of endeavoring to render

the work of the compositor, where changes are necessary, as neat, accurate, and consistent in its parts, as

possible. He begins by writing the phrase “ First Proof” on the upper margin of the first page. He then examines the folios and the signatures, the captions and the subheads; notices whether the pages are of equal or proper lengths, and if the lines are straight or crooked; inspects the spacing, or blank, between the words and sentences, that they may have regularity of appearance; and peruses the whole sheet more or less rapidly, — putting his corrections in the margin, as exemplified at the end of the present work. All this should be the first thing done in proof-reading; but,

from carelessness or from a supposed want of time, it is commonly left undone, except so far as the duty

p. 322

HINTS ON PROOF-READING. can be performed in

309

the next process, about to be

described.

The manuscript is now put into the hands of an intelligent boy, one who is able to read it aloud clearly

and accurately.

The corrector of the press has the

proof-sheet before him, and, if he have gone through

the process just mentioned,

has

no occasion, when

making fresh marks, to stop the reader of the copy, unless there be some peculiar difficulty.

His chief aim

is to make the print an accurate representation of the author’s writing, or mode of expression: but his atten-

tion is also devoted to the spelling of the words

accordance with some authorized standard; and to the punctuation, that it may develop the construction of

the sentences, and the meaning intended. usually expected, nor indeed is change

He is not

it his province, to

the ideas, to improve the

style, or, except

merely in a lapse of the pen, to correct. grammatical blunders.

But should there occur any obscurities in

the writing, or any errors or inelegances in the lan-

guage, he may put a Qy. (“query ”) in the margin, and leave

the suggestions

proof.

to be made

in the next

In reading the manuscript, the boy should pronounce with an additional syllable such proper names as have a final e, to distinguish them from those which want this

letter; reading, for instance, Browne, Deane, Greene, each as two syllables, and sounding the e so as to be

plainly heard.

He should lay the accent on the last

syllable of proper names having two consonants of the

same kind, to distinguish them from those which have

only one; as, Bennett’.

But all uncommon or difficult

p. 323

810

APPENDIX.

words, whose constituent letters cannot be known by any mode of pronunciation, he should spell through-

out; as, Samson, Sampson; Taylor, Tayler ; Thomson,

Thompson.

When viz. is written for “namely,” and

gc. for “and so forth,” he should give each word such a pronunciation as will exhibit the mode in which it is

to be printed; as viz, in conformity with its spelling,

for the former, and et cetera for the latter.

At the

beginning of every paragraph, except the first, he should say “Paragraph.”

At the commencement of

each quotation that has

quotation-marks, he should

say “Turn,” and, at the end of it, “Close;” meaning by the former expression that a quotation in the manuscript is preceded by turned or inverted commas, and

by the latter that it is closed or finished by apostrophes. In reading words which have a single line drawn under

them, he should, instead of saying “Italics,” which

would mar the sense, gently strike the desk, making . one tap simultaneously with the pronunciation of each

word; unless a long sentence is Italicized, when the

naming of “Italics” before the passage, and “ Roman” after it, will be a sufficient token where it begins and

ends.

To indicate such words as are meant to be

printed on capitals or small capitals, he should say

“ Caps.” or “ Small caps.,” as the case requires.

That

the corrector may conveniently inspect the manuscript

when it is hard to make out, the boy should sit at his

left hand. When the proof-sheet has been carefully read in the

manner spoken of, the corrector inserts in the manuscript a bracket between the last word of the printed sheet and the first of the next; and, over these, the

p. 324

HINTS ON PROOF-READING.

311

paging, the signature, and, if requisite, the number of

volume; as, “[Page 9, Sig. 2, vol. i.;” or “[Page 9, Sig. C;” so that no mistake may be committed in beginning to set or make up the pages that immediately

follow.

He then cuts off the portion of the manuscript

which is marked as above, and returns it at once with the proof-sheet to the compositor, whose business it is

to make his work correspond accurately with the cor-

rections marked.

Having performed this duty, the

compositor has another impression taken of his pages, which he delivers, along with the former one, to the

proof-reader.

And now begins another process on the part of the corrector of the press, by his writing on the newly

printed sheet the words “Second Proof.” After placing the two proofs in juxtaposition, he minutely compares them, in order to ascertain whether all the errors that

- had been marked have been corrected in the type;

‘re-marking those which may have been neglected,

transcribing the quertes from the first proof, and making | such suggestions as he thinks proper. Should the establishment. have another proof-reader, he transfers

to him the second proof, with the manuscript, to be examined again, and, if necessary, recorrected.

If,

however, there is only one reader, he should with unwearied eye peruse it afresh; mark in the margin whatever errors may have. escaped his notice in the previous reading, or been made by the compositor in

the transference of the corrections; and send the proof-

sheet immediately to the writer of the work, unless the errors are so numerous as to require additional labor

and a third proof.

p. 325

312

APPENDIX.

If the author be a thoughtful man, he will take care that no unnecessary delay occur in the performance of his duty; for, though it may possibly be a matter of little importance to the public or himself when his book will make its appearance, it is of the utmost moment to the printer and his workmen that their material be not blocked up, or their time frittered away. He therefore proceeds at once to the inspection of his proof-sheet; to the task of examining every

page, line, word, letter, point, with a keen and scrutinizing eye. In this he has in view one at least of two objects, — to ascertain whether the compositor and the proof-reader have left any errors uncorrected, or

whether he himself, in the preparation of his manuscript, has been sufficiently careful to express his ideas in the clearest and most accurate manner. Indeed, to ensure the highest degree of correctness, he should have both objects in view; for even if the writer have genius or great learring, and the printer be a man of talent and taste, it is not to be supposed, that these qualities, so desirable in authorship and typography, will have made either of them immaculate. It is therefore probable that both parties have more or less erred. The spelling or the punctuation may be sometimes erroneous; the capitalizing and Italicizing may be susceptible of improverhent; inelegances may be noticed, improprieties perceived, or grammatical inaccuracies detected, which, either in the warmth of composition or in a premature haste for going to press, were before concealed. Suggestions, too, may appear in

the margin, which, though made by the office-corrector in the modest form of queries, are worthy, at least for

p. 326

HINTS

ON PROOF-READING.

318

courtesy’s sake, of being attended to by the author; who should either adopt them, and expunge, in every

case, the word

“ Qy.;” make, if thought preferable, a

different change;

or erase both the query and the suggestion, — instead of leaving them, as is sometimes done, in the margin, to try the printer’s patience, and

to bafile his skill and ingenuity in ascertaining what is meant.

But an author may be capable of rectifying all these mistakes, and yet, from his inexperience or his heedlessness, he may note them down in the proof-sheet, in such a way as to render them either invisible or illegi-

ble, and thus defeat his own purposes.

To prevent this result, he should mark his corrections, not with a pencil, but with a pen; and place them, not between the printed lines, but in the margin, exactly opposite where the changes required are to be made.

In short,

to preclude the probability of additional or different

mistakes, it should be his aim to use the very marks

which the printer employs, and in a similar way.

To facilitate an object so essential, we present two pages

(see pp. 320-21); the one exhibiting a proof, when read and marked, of work such as may proceed from the hands of a compositor; the other, as it would appear after the corrections have been duly made in type.

The formeris called a “ foul proof,” because it contains a far greater number of mistakes than could

be made by a skilful and attentive workman; but it is purposely thus presented, in order that an author may

see at once the whole of the marks which are adopted,

and be enabled to write in the same manner those requiredin his own proof.

p. 327

314

APPENDIX.

We may add, for the information of young writers, and to deter them from making changes out of mere caprice, that the transferring of these to type is a matter of considerable labor;

and that alterations,

when numerous, will form a rather heavy item in the printer’s bill.

To save, however, as much of this-

expense as possible, an author may, by a little ma-

neeuvring, often substitute, in room of what he erases, just as much as would fill up the space, or expunge as great an amount of matter as he wishes to introduce.

Having finished the reading and correcting of his proof-sheet, the author should write

the

lower

margin of the last page, either the words “ Revise wanted,” indicating that he must have another proof, in order to compare it with the former, and to see whether all the pages are correct, before being printed ;

or the term “ Press,” showing that, after the alterations have been made in the metal, and read again by the

office proof-reader from another impression, there will be no occasion for himself to see a revise, but that the form of pages may be put to press.

This impression is

usually termed a “ Press-proof,” and so marked at the top of the first page.

When the form has gone to press, the first fairprinted sheet, called a “ Revise,” is shown to the

proof-reader, who compares it with the press-proof, and cursorily examines the folios, the foot-lines, and — the sides of the pages, to ascertain whether any types

have fallen out or been broken, or any “bites” have been made, in the last processes.

All the operations described may be regarded as

only one of the stages made in the progress of a work

p. 328

HINTS ON PROOF-READING.

318

through the press. The same course has to be performed with the remainder of the book, before it meets the approving smile, the condemnatory voice, or the silent indifference, of the mighty Public, — before it shine as a beautiful and benignant sun in the firmament of literature, or glimmer like a taper through its little night, shedding for a moment its delusive rays on the step of the benighted traveller, but soon to be extinguished and forgotten amid the effulgence of meridian day.

In these suggestions we have said nothing of the processes adopted in correcting a proof taken from reprinted, magazine, or newspaper matter. But it will be easy for the printer to modify these in accord:

ance with the nature of the work, with the views of,

parties having over it literary control, or with the amount of time given for bringing out the publication. This much, however, may be said, in justice to authors who have no opportunity of superintending the press, that the same degree of accuracy should be ensured in the second and following editions of their books as in the first; and, in relation to journals, that if an article, poem, or advertisement is worth the perusal of the public, it surely deserves to be exhibitedin a form not altogether disgraceful to taste and letters.

p. 329

816

APPENDIX.

VIII. —EXPLANATION OF

PROOF-MARKS.

To enable the young author to write his corrections in the proof-sheet, so as to be readily seen and understood by the compositor, we now enter on an explanation of the marks used in pages 820-21, and to which some allusions were made in the preceding article : — In page 269, it is said that capital letters are indicated. by three

horizontal lines drawn beneath a word meant to be so printed; small capitals, by two lines; and Italics, by one.

This is illustrated in

page 820,—in the title of the piece, the printed lines numbered 1, 23, and the last line; where the abbreviated words, Cups., S. Caps., and Jtal., are written in the margin, exactly Opposite where the corrections are to be made in type.

If a word or phrase has been erroneously put in capitals or small capitals, instead of common letters, the change is indicated by

writing in the margin, as in No. 2, the abbreviation J. c. (for “ lower-

case letters ”’).

To correct a wrong letter, point, or other character, a line is drawn slopingly through it; to correct a wrong word or phrase or two wrong letters, across them;

and the right letter, point, word,

or phrase, or the appropriate mark, is written in the margin, oppo-

site the error.

See Nos. 2, 5, 6, 9—11, 14, 16—19, 27, 29.

When letters, words, points, characters, or spaces have been omitted, a caret is put where they are to be introduced; the corrections, as before, being written in the margin.

See Nos, 3, 4, 7, 18,

15, 17, 24, 27.

A line drawn in a sloping direction from right to left is put after

all the points written in the margin; with the exception of the period, which is placed within

a circle, and of the apostrophe,

p. 330

EXPLANATION OF PROOF-MARKS.

317

resemreference-marks, and superiors, which are inserted in a figure from mark one te separa to used bling a capital V. The lines are to coranother with which it is unconnected, or to attract the eye

rections, which, from their smallness, are liable to be overlooked. See Nos. 2, 9, 18, 15—17, 29.

oppoIf a space is wanting between two words, a mark like that should that letters if But, . margin the in put is 27 and 3 Nos. site them and

join are separated, the mark \ must be used, both under in the margin opposite, agreeably to No. 28. ters A little line is written under letters or other printed charac are which those under also and dirty, or , broken d, inverte are that an to on attenti draw To 24. and 5 Nos. in too large or too small, as

, is written inverted letter, a mark resembling the figure 9, but sloped like an cross, small a type, foul or bad a in the margin, No. 5; to abbrethe size, per impro an of ter charac a to and 24; No. x, Italic viation w.f., denoting a wrong font, No. 25.

n with a When a word, character, or point is erased, a d, writte 6, 11, 17, Nos. ite oppos that to r simila top, line through it from the in placed is , out’) e (“strik dele a called ly priate appro and , 22,29

, a mark like a double If a space sticks up between two words | 19.

the margin.

dagger should be put opposite, as in No.

ke by drawing a Should two words be transposed, note the mista second; and by the under it uing contin and line over the first word, in the margin, as in placing the abbreviation tr. (“transpose’’)a differ line of print, No. 21. If the misplaced word belongs to to theentplace where it it encircle the word, and draw a line from to be transposed, indiare words al sever When should be inserted. by and them, over &c., 8, 2, cate the order by placing the figures 1, of s mode other the in as , being ¢. ; them drawing a line under transposition, written in the margin. that is afterShould a character, word, or phrase be strucktheoutLatin direction and it, wards approved of, dots are placed under margin, as in No. 23. the in placed in”) rema or stand Stet (“let it in write te, separa be should that When lines of print are close and, 14; 18, Nos. to ing accord , Leads or Lead tern the the margin using, when lines are apart that should be close, say, Dele lead,

p. 331

318

APPENDIX. .

however, the peculiar mark for the first of these words, in accord-

ance with Nos. 28, 24.

When several words or lines have been left out, they should be written at the side, top, or bottom of the page, as is most convenient,

and a line drawn from the place where they are to be introduced, to

the first word of the written phrase or passage, as exemplified in

No. 24.

But, if more matter is to be inserted than can be contained in the margin, the direction See Copy and the folio of the manuscript

should be written within a circle, opposite the line where the omission has been made.

In the left-hand margin of Nos. 8 and 9 occurs the direction, No break; and, in that of No. 12, the mark J.

The former denotes that the sentences between which a line is drawn are to be put in one

and the same paragraph; and the latter, that the passage preceded by the crotchet [ is to begin a new paragraph. The last mark is also used for a different purpose, as in No. 1, where the first word

is to be brought to the commencement of the line, without being

indented.

If a line is irregularly spaced, as in No. 26,—that is, if some of the words are too close, and others too wide apart,—Jlet the direction Space better be written opposite, in the margin.

When the reader of the proof-sheet is doubtful as to the spelling of any word, or the correctness of any expression, he writes on the opposite margin the abbreviation Qy. (for query), with his suggestion; as exemplified in No. 26, where the e in the first syllable of

Shakspeare’s name is queried, and the suggestion made, by the appropriate mark, that the letter be deled, or struck out.

Crooked letters or words are noticed, as in Nos. 28—80, by means

of horizontal lines [

in the margin.

] drawn above and below them, and also

Corrections are usually placed in the margin to the right, as being more convenient to the hand of the proof-reader and the eye of the compositor; the left-hand margin being appropriated to directions

and marks for which there is little room in the opposite margin.

the corrections or emendations should be put in the order in which

they occur, as marked in Nos. 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 17, 19 23 24, 26, 27, 29.

p. 332

SPECIMEN OF PROOF-SHEET.

p. 333

320 TYPOGRAPHICAL MARKS EXEMPLIFIED.

WORTH ——___

No.

OF HUMAN

ooo

eee

NATURE.

hou

—e

1. [_ Where, unreasonable complainer! dost thou stand, and what J, bof, Lf 2. is around thee’ The world spreads before eHen-its sublime Z.¢.

/ 8.

mysteries, where the thoughts ofsages lose themselves in won-

der;

golden sun lights thy path; the wide Heavens stretch them-

beyond systems, to infinity; and dost thou stand in, centre of

the ocean lifts up its etgnal anthems to thine ear; the ¢

d 6. selves above thee, and worlds rise upon worlds, and systems,’ 9 ho\

buak)

8 .|all this, to complain of thy lot and place?

CPupil of that infinite teaching minister at Nature’s great VA

.|altar! child of feaven’s favor!

ennobled being!

redeemed

.| creature ! _/ must thou pine in-mepinand g- envious melancholy,

amidst the plenitude of the whole creation?

bor is above thee,,thou sayest.

-}éwe?

What then?

[But thy neigh-

What is that to

What though the shout of millions rose around him?

What is that to the million oiced nature that God

VM hook

has given That shout dies away into the vacant air; it is not his ¢ -|but thy nature/,thy favored, sacred, and glorious nature/‘%is .|

thee?

thine ;-it-1s thé

ThouZcanst

reality, to

meditate

which praise is but a fleeting breath.

the things

. | brates.

which “ppplease but

In that thou art a man, thou art/exalted infinitely} any man can be, in that that he is praised.

cele-

(LINE

above what Lr.

I would rather be g

-| the humblest saen-in the world, than barely de thought greater Si a,

-|than the greate ~ st. Not one of the crowds that listened to X -| the eloquence /of Demosthenes and Cicero, — not one who has wv, ., bent with admiration over the pages of Homer and Shake-|

Speare,jnot/one who

followed

the train of

Caesar or of <>

. | Nap leon, would part with the humblest power of thought,

.|for aj) zhe fayte that is echoing over the world/and through

Dewey.

mf §

Lbups.

p. 334

321

PRECEDING PAGE AFTER CORRECTION.

WORTH OF HUMAN NATURE.

WHERE, unreasonable complainer! dost thou stand, and what The world spreads before thee its sublime of sages lose themselves in wonmysteries, where the thoughts der; the ocean litts up its eternal anthems to thine ear; the golden sun lights thy path; the wide heavens stretch themselves above thee, and worlds rise upon worlds, and systems beyond systems, to infinity; and dost thou stand in the centre is around thee?

of all this, to complain of thy lot and place?

Pupil of that

infinite teaching! minister at Nature’s great altar! child of Heaven’s favor! ennobled being! redeemed creature! must thou pine in sullen and envious melancholy, amidst the plenitude of tle whole creation?

« But thy neighbor is above thee,” thou sayest. What then? What is that to thee? What though the shout of millions rose around him? What is that to the million-voiced nature that God has given thee? That shout dies away into the vacant air; it is not his: but thy nature — thy favored, sacred, and glorious nature— is thine. It is the reality, to which praise is but a fleeting breath. Thou canst meditate the things which

- applause but celebrates.

In that thou art a man, thou art infinitely exalted above what any man can be, in that he is praised. I would rather be

the humblest man in the world, than barely be thought greater than the greatest. The beggar is greater as a man, than is the

man merely asa king. Not one of the crowds that listened to the eloquence of Demosthenes and Cicero, — not one who has bent with admiration over the pages of Homer and Shak-

speare,— not one who followed in the train of Cesar or of

Napoleon, would part with the humblest power of thought, for all the fame that is echoing over the world and through the ages.

Dewey. 21

p. 336

X. INDE

Abbreviations require periods after them, 148, 149. Remarks on the various modes of forming, 272-276. List of, 277-800. Words in copy, not meant to be printed as abbreviations, should be written in full,

‘* Above all,” as an adverbial phrase, pointed with a comma, 72, a.

Absolute phrases, 69, 70. ‘¢ Accordingly,” 72, a.

Adjectives, two, without a conjunction between them, 33, 84, d—g. Adjectives in a series, 38, e, f. Consolidated with nouns, 215.

Adjectival phrases, 22, VI.; 59, 60, jin; 69, 70.

7; 88, d; 84, e, 7; d; 30, Adverbs, 29,

88, e, £3 52, g 1; 59, i; 72-74; 217, Qiand j.

Adverbial phrases, 22, VI.; 72-74. Affirmative words quoted in an interrogative form, 156, f.

Apostrophe, rules and remarks on the, with exercises, 198-207. Improperly used in certain abbrevia-

tions, 149, ¢; 198, 199, e—f; 276. Marks the possessive case, 204, 205;

Accents, 289, X.

Quoted

in an exclamatory form, 161, e. “ Again,” with or without a comma,

in accordance with the connection,

72, a, 6.

expressions, 45-47 ; 79,f; 104, 105;

118, 114.

304.

tween two short clauses, a verb understood in the last, 104, ¢ Between two clauses, the last being added as an explanation, 118, ' 114. Beginning sentences, 148, ¢. Antithetic or contrasted words and

Followed by a colon,

when referring to several sentences,

216.

Appellations of God and Christ, initial letters in the, 259, 260. Appellatives before and after proper names, initials of, 262, c. Apposition, 28, X.; 41-48; 213.

Apprentices to the printing-business counselled, 11.

Arabic figures, how pointed, 112; Dash supplying 149, e; 150, IV.

the place of, 195. Plurals of, how formed, 198, 5. Small, or superiors, for references, 240. Arithmetic, the points to be used in books of, 141, a.

Arithmetical signs, 301. “ As,” signifying in the manner in which, 89, ¢; 105, d. “ As—as,” “ as—so,” the tives, 98, a; 94, c.

181, e.

Algebraic signs, list of, 801. “6 Also,” 738, e.

correla-

Oc-

‘‘ As well as,”? between two words mutually related, 45,c. Between

curring in a series of words, 37, 38.

a word and a phrase, or between

‘ And,” between two words of the

same part of speech, 28-30.

Between phrases or clauses in the

same construction, 98, 99.

Be-

two phrases, 46, ¢.

‘¢ Ag yet,”’ and similar phrases, 72, @

p. 337

«B24

INDEX.

As,” “namely,” &c., 128; 188, d.

Between a word and a phrase, or

Asterisk, the uses of the, 240.

between two phrases, 46,¢.

tween two short clauses, in

the

The

three asterisks, 237, V. Astronomical characters, list of, 302.

last of which a verb is understood,

‘“ At present,”’ 72, a.

104, c.

Authors, the duty of, to point their

latter being added by way of con-

Between two clauses, the

manuscripts well, 7, 8; 304, 305.

trast, 118, 114.

Commencing sen-

Are assisted in composition by an

tences, 142, 148.

In the sense cf

acquaintance with the art of punc-

except, 19, g.

tuation, 7,8.

If considerate, they

prepare ‘‘ copy’ so as to be per-

fectly legible, 804-806.

And cor-

“ But also,” 35, 1.

“ But has,” meaning as not to have, 93, 8.

Cc.

rect the proof-sheets with all pos-_ sible care, adopting the

precise

marks used by printers, 312, 313.

Capitals, their uses and applications, 257-269..

Used as reference-signa

and dominical letters, 149, f.

** Because,” the comma sometimes

numeral capitals, 149, f; 151, a.

. omitted before, 89, e.

Capitals used

« Besides,’ used as a preposition or

figures, 150, V , 2; 268, XII.

a conjunction, 74, 7.

instead of Arabic

titlepages, inscriptions, &e., 268,

Bible references, how pointed, 100, 7; .

150, V., 1; 151, 6, ¢.

The

points put after representative or

Chapters of

the Bible referred to by numeral

letters, 151, d.

XIII.

and

Words wholly in capitals

small

capitals,

how

distin-

guished in manuscript, 269.

Captions, or headings, 147, 270.

Blank at the beginning of a poetical

Caret, its form and use, 237, VI. ; 304.

quotation, when the first portion

Catalogues, words or phrases in, of-

is omitted, 195, d.

ten

followed

by a

period,

147.

Blunders in sense caused by a habit

Names omitted in, sometimes sup-

of careless punctuation, 3-5, 18.

plied by two commas or by long

In printing, often caused by illegible writing, 306.

Books, terms relating to, 270, 271. Captions, subheads, sideheads, and running titles, 270.

Signatures,

and names of sizes of volumes, 271. * Boro’,”’ better spelled out, 199, d. “ Both—and,” the correlatives, 29,

£3 94, h.

Abbrevia-

tions serviceable in, 272.

“ Catholic,”

the

initial

letter of,

265, f.

Cedilla, the, 239, XII. Change of subject, abrupt, preceded

by a dash, 175.

Chanting service in the Liturgy, a

Brace, for what purpose used, 23} Brackets, the manner of applying

them, 170,

dashes, 236, III., and 288, VIII. ‘Leaders in, 238, IX.

7; 235.

after the word and its numeral,

Broken sentences, 175.

194, d.

* Brothers” in a firm, 41, c. ‘* But,”? between

two

colon inserted in each verse of, 141. ‘¢ Chapter,” a dash commonly put

words

Chapters of the Bible referred to by con-

trasted or mutually related, 45, c.

numeral letters, 150, V.,1; 151, 3 “ Church,” initial of, 265, e.

p. 338

325

INDEX.

Clauses, definition of, 21, .V. Rela. tive, 57-€0. Parenthetical or intermediate, 64. Vocative,68. One clause depending on another, 89,

rule, 211, 212.

Compound adjec-

tives and compound nouns, 212. Nouns and pronouns in apposi-

Nouns used adjectively,

tion, 218.

In the

218,

214.

same construction, 98; 100, k, J. One having a verb understood, 104, 105. Clauses preceding quo-

214,.

Adjectives consolidated with

216.

tations or remarks, 108, 109; 188. United by conjunctions, 118, 114.

218.

Correlative, 98, 94.

nouns, 215.

Numeral

adjectives,

Names of places, 215,

The possessive case, 216, 217.

Compound and other phrases, 217,

Exercises on, 221-228.

simpler portions,

Conjoined

100, 2; 116, 117. Series of, having a common dependence, 120, 121. Complete, but followed by a@ re-

134, 135.

Conjunctions to be pointed, when

mark, inference, or illustration, 180, 181. Constituting members, 184, 185. Interrogative, 155, 156.

Joining words of the same part

In paren-

contrasted or related words and

Divisible into

Exclamatory, 159-161.

members

of sentences,

separated by other words from the parts to which they belong, 65, d.

of speech, 28-30; 87,38.

phrases, 45, 46, c, e, f, 2, j. Used As correla-

theses, 168, 169. Concluding, on which other expressions depend,

as adverbs, 78, h, 7.

178.

tives, 93,94.

Colon, rules and remarks on the, with exercises, 129-141. Comma, rules and remarks on the,

Between

Joining phrases and

words, 98, 99.

Joining clauses,

89, 90, e, £3 104, c; 108, 109, d, e; 118,114. Joining sentences, 126, c.

An in-

Beginning sentences, 1384, 0; 148.

verted, sometimes used instead of a small c, 236, IT. Commas, two, used under names to

* Consequently,” how punctuated,

with exercises, 27-112.

Inavoid repetition, 286, III. verted, double or single, as quotation-marks, 228, 2380. Commencement of a broken quotation in verse, blank at the, 195, &.

Complete sentences, 142, 148. Compositors, a knowledge of punc-

72, a.

Construction of a sentence, what it is, 28, XIII. Illustrated, 98, a. Contents of books, chapters, or sections, how pointed, 148, d.

Contractions and abbreviations, re-

marks

on,

272-276.

Table of,

277-300.

their

Contrasted words and expressions, 45-47; 79, f; 104, 105; 118, 114.

business, 8,9.

Their skill in the

Co-ordinate or consecutive clauses,

art conducive

to mental vigor,

tuation

necessary

to,

22, V.; 100, &.

Copy, hints on the preparation of,

8-11.

Compound sentences, what they are, 41, Ili.

303-307.

Corrector of the press, duties of a,

208, 8.

li, 12; 308-815. Correlative clauses and words explained, 21-23, V. and IX. Their

Compound words, rule and remarks Exceptions to the on, 209-218.

7; 235. Crotchets, or brackets, 170,

Compound

and

distinction

derivative

words,

23,

XII. ;

between,

punctuation, 98, 94.

p. 339

826

INDEX.

‘6 Ed,” “éd,” &c., the terminations

Dagger, the uses of the, 240. Dash, rules and remarks on the, with

of participles in verse, 199-201.

exercises, 174-196.

What points,

if any, are used with dashes, 175,

a, b; 178, a; 182, a—c; 186, 187; 191, ¢. Dates. 79,7; 80, &; 100, 7; 112; 149, e; 150, 151; 195; 275.

Decimals, pounds and shillings, how pointed, 150, IV.

2, 19.

g; 94, h.

Elision of letters in poetry and dialogue, 198, 199.

Ellipsis of “namely,” “that is,” Of letters, figures, or

words, 195; 288, VIII.

Of words

at the beginning of poetical quo-

Definitions of terms used in the pre-

sent work, 20-28. Dependent clauses, 21, 22, V.; 89, 90; 120, 121.

Derivative words, how distinguished | from compounds, 28, XTI.; 208, d.

Prefixes in, 219, 220.. Exercises on derivatives and compounds, 2212238.

Designations of religious and political parties, initial letters of the,

Dieeresis, use of the, 200, g; 219, a; 239, XI. * Divine,”

‘ Divine

Being,”

&c.,

the initial letters of, 260, e, f. Division of words into syllables, according

their

pronunciation,

According to

their

form,

derivation, or meaning, 225. ends of lines, 226.

Exercises on

the, 226, 227.

Dominical letters, pointed not as abbreviations, but signs, 149, /.

Echo, or rhetorical repetition, 182,

What points are used with

of the thought, 183, e.

195,

Marks of, how -

Epigrammatic sentences, 175. “ Eternal,”’ the initial letter of, as an

adjective applied to God, 260, e. “Ev’ry,’’ the apostrophe in, 199, f. Example, the punctuation of words

introducing

an,

128,

188,

191.

A poetical, marked with inverted commas, 229, ¢.

The initial letter

of the first word in an, 267, XT. Exclamation, the note of, rule and

remarks on, with exercises, 159163.

Sometimes improperly used,

159, a; 161, d.

Exercises on the definitions, 24, 25. On the comma, 31, 82; 35, 86; 39,

40; 48, 44; 47-49; 54-56; 61-63;

66, 67; 68; 70, 71; 74-77; 80-82;

86-88; 90-92; 95-97; 100-208; 105 -107; 109-111; 112. On the semicolon, 114, 115; 117,118; 122; 126, 127; 128. On the comma and the semicolon, 119; 128,124. On the — colon, 181-183; 186; 189,140. On

On the period, 143-146; 151, 152.

the dash after it, 182, a—c.

tations,

, formed, 195; 288, VIIT.

the semicolon and the colon, 187.

* Doubtless,” 72, a, 6

188.

phrase, 79, ¢. “ Kither—or,” the correlatives, 29,

&e., 191.

Definition of the art of punctuation,

224.

*¢ Hither,” “even,” beginning a final

Echo

On the notes of interrogation and exclamation, 157, 158; 162, 163;

164-166.

On the marks of paren-

thesis, 171-173.

On the dash, 176,

192; 195, 196.

On the semicolon

177; 179, 180; 183-185; 188, 189;

p. 340

827

INDEX.

and dash, 181. On the dash and its accompanying point, 189, 190; 193. On the apostrophe, 201-203; On the hyphen, 221205-207. 228; 226, 227. On marks of quota-

tion, 288, 284. General, 241-254. Explanation of proof-marks, 316-318. ‘« Expression,’’ meaning of the word,

22, VII.

General exercises, 241-254. Genitive case, rule and remarks on

the sign of the, with exercises, 204-207. .

Geographical and geometrical signs, | 301.

“ God,’ when used with a capital, and when with a small initial,

Expressions, inverted, 83-85. Correlative, 98,94. Divided into simpler parts, 116, 117.

Having a

common dependence, 120, 121; 178. In the form of questions, 155, 156. Indicating passion or emotion, 159 -161. Extracts, consisting of words or expressions, 228-231. Composed

of successive paragraphs, 282.

259, a.

‘* Gospel,’ initial of, varied in accordance with its meaning, 264, d. Governing words, the last of two or

more, 83, d; 84, e; 38, g.

Grammar, some acquaintance with, necessary to a knowledge of punetuation, 20. Grammatical punctuation different from rhetorical, 15-17; 27, 28. Grammatical points, rules and re-

FB.

marks on the, with exercises, 26-

‘ Father,” ‘‘ Fathers,”? distinctions made in the initials of, 260, g; 262, c.

Figures, Arabic, how punctuated, .

152.

Grammatical and rhetorical points, rules and remarks on the, with exercises, 1538-196.

112; 150, IV. Not abbreviations, 149, e; 150, IV.

Final phrases, 70, g ; 78-80. Clauses, 89, 90.

“6 First,” “finally,” “for the most part,” often pointed with commas,

Headings and subheads, 147, 270. Heads of chapters, sections, articles, put entirely on capitals or small capitals, 268, XTIT.

72, a.

“ First Cause,

Hand, or index, 237, IV.

Father of mercies,”

the initials of, 260, f, z. First word in a book, tract, &c., In phrases or clauses 258, I. separately numbered, 258, I., 0b.

‘¢ Heaven,” not to be printed heav’n,

199, f. The initial letter of, 260, d; 262, b.

“6 Heavenly ” should have a small initial, 260, e.

After a period, or note of interro-

‘¢ Hence,” * here,” 78, e, f.

gation or exclamation, 258, II. 6;

‘“ However,” the pointing of, as a

conjunction and an adverb, 73, h.

259, c. “ For,” between

two clauses, the |

Hints on the preparation of copy,

latter being explanatory, 118, 114.

and on proof-reading, 303-315.

Beginning sentences, 184, b ; 143, e.

‘¢ Holy Spirit,”? “* Holy Ghost,” the

Foreign words that have been Anglicized by contraction, 149, d. * Formerly,” often unpointed, 72, c.

initials of, usually put in capitals.

, 260, i. ‘6 How,” 109, g; 160, d.

p. 341

3828

INDEX.

Hyphen, rules and remarks on the, with exercises, 208-227.

As used

in compound words, 209-218. derivatives, 219, 220.

In syllabi-

84,d; 85, f. When inserted, 84, 6

85, g. Italics, how distinguished in manuscript, 269.

To be sparingly used,

229, d—f; 269, 270.

cation, 224-226.

K and L.

“ T.e.,”? * that is,” 128; 188, @.

*¢ King,” sometimes put with a capi-

6 Tf,? 89, a, e; 109, g.

tal K, and sometimes with a small

Imperative absolute, 69, 5.

one, 259, b; 261, d.

Importance of punctuation, 1-18. ‘In conclusion,” when put at the

“in general,” &c., usually pointed

Language, oral, rendered more ex-

pressive

variation

of tones,

inflections, and pauses, 1,2. Written

printed,

elucidated

points, 2.

Larger portions of sentences, 116,

with commas, 72, a.

¢ In order that,” 90, g, 2.

117.

In order to,” 79, 7.

Leaders, or dots, 288, TX.

“ Indeed,” as an adverb and as a

Letter-writers cause trouble by their

conjunction, 73, 4.

loose style of pointing, 5.

Independent phrases, 69, 70.

Letter, syllabic,and quotation points,

Independent sentences, 142.

rules and remarks on the, with

Index, or hand, use of the, 237, IV.

exercises, 197-284.

Indirect quotations, questions, &c.,

Letters of the alphabet, sometimes

108, c; 109, g; 155, b; 229, b.

signs, not abbreviations, 149, f.

“ Indisputably,” 72, a.

Used instead of Arabic figures or

‘6 Infinite One,” begun with capital

numeral words, 150, 151.

“ Lord,” “lady,” initials of, 259, 6

letters, 260, f.

Initial letters of words, when to be

261, IV., d.

Lunar signs, 802.

capitalized, 257-267. Inscriptions, capitals and small ca-

pitals used in, 268, XIII.

Institutions, principal words in the

rules and reports of, 261, a. Interlineations to be made in copy

150, IV.

Marks, miscellaneous,

with great distinctness, 304.

' ‘Interlocutors, names of, 194, c. Intermediate words,

“ Madam,” the initial of, 261, IV., ). Marks, not pointed as abbreviations,

phrases,

of, and

235-240.

explanation

Arithmetical

and

other, 3801.

50, ¢;

Marks of parenthesis, rule and re-

57, 6; 58, e; 64, 65; 69, d—f; 72,

marks on the, with exercises, 167-

clauses, 22, VIII.;

46,7;

XI., d; 78, g—i; 186, 187. Interrogation-point, rules marks

the,

with

174.

and

re-

exercises,

228-234.

154-158. Inverted expressions, 88-85.

Marks of quotation, rules and obser_yations on the, with exercises,

When

the comma should be omitted in,

Marks, typographical, explained and exemplified, 316-321.

p. 342

329

INDEX.

Mathematical signs, 801.

trasted words or phrases, 46, J, & and t.

Members of sentences, explanation of, 21, IV. Conjoined, 134, 185. Miscellaneous abbreviations, list of,

Notes of interrogation and exclama-

Medical signs, 801.

277-300.

Miscellaneous marks, 235-240. “More, greater, &c.,—than,” the correllatives, 98, a; 94, d, @. ‘‘ More, the,—the better,” the cor-

tion, difference between the, 154. Rules and remarks on the, with exercises, 155-166.

“ Notwithstanding,” 74, j. Nouns in apposition, 41, 42; 218. In the possessive case, 204, 205; Compound, 212. Used ad-

216.

to God, begin with capitals, 260, /f. N.

Gentile,

jectively, 213.

relatives, 93, @.

‘“ Most High,” ‘ Highest,” applied

initials

of, 263.

“ Now,’ as an adverb and a conjunction, 73, h.

‘6 Now and then,” 72, a.

N, the Spanish, 239, XIII.

Number of a house or shop and the

Names of the grammatical points, and whence borrowed, 26. Of in-

Numeral adjectives, with respect to

name of street, 100, 7.

terlocutors, the dash unnecessary after, 194,c. Of persons and places

begun with capital letters, 262. Compound, of places, 215. Names of sizes of books, 271. “ Natare,” with a capital or a small n, 260, .

“( Neither —nor,”? the correlatives,

29, g; 98, a; 94, A. “No,” when equivalent to a sen-. tence, 180, d.

Nominative and verb, 50-54.

Abso-

lute or independent, 69, a, c.

Nominative clause, what it is, 21, V.; 50, a. Phrase, 22, VI.; 50, ¢. “ Nor,”? between two words of the same part of speech, 28, 29. Ina

series of words, 87, 88. As a corBetween relative, 93, a; 94, 4. phrases and words in the same construction, 98, 5; 99, g. Between two short clauses, a verb

the hyphen, 214. Numeral

figures and words,

how

pointed, 112.

“OQ” and “ oh,” in what they differ, '

and how pointed, 160, c.

Obelisk, or dagger, 240. Objections to the study of punctua-

tion answered, 12-14.

Objective absolute or independent,

69, f.

“¢ Of,” having before it a verb understood, 105, e.

“Of late,” “ of course,” &c., 72, @. “ Of which,” *‘ of whom,” 59, h. Omission

of ‘‘ namely”? or “ that

is,’ 191.

Of letters, figures, or

words 195; 238, VIIT. -

Of words

in the first line of a poetical quotation, 195, b.

“On the one hand,” “on the contrary,” &c., 72, a.

understood in the latter,

“’ Once more,” put at the beginning

words contrasted or mutually related, 46. d.

“ Or,” 28-80; 87, 88; 94, 2; 98-100.

being

of several sentences, 131, e.

104, c.

‘‘Not,” between

two

Preceding the first of two con-

b, g.t; 104. ¢.

*¢ Ortho4ox,” initial of, 265, g.

p. 343

330

INDEX.

Plurals of letters of tle alphabet and

‘6 Pagan,” initial of, 265, g. Pairs, words in, united by conjunctions, 38, 7, 7; 99, 7%

Contrasted

by prepositions, 46, s.

of Arabic figures, 198, b. and

Of nouns

pronouns in the possessive

case, 205.

All plural nouns to be

clearly written in copy, 804.

Paragraph-mark, 240, 804. Paragraphs sometimes connected by a dash, 194,38. To be distinctly marked in manuscript, 304, 805. Parallel lines, 240, 301. Parentheses and parenthetical ex-

Poetical quotations beginning with a broken line, 195, 8. Poetry requires more semicolons and

colons than prose, 125,54.

When

to be marked with inverted com-

mas, 229, g’.

pressions, difference between, 64, a, b.

Points, enumeration of the, 26, 158,

Parenthesis, marks of, rules and ob-

Political parties, initials of the names

servations on the, with exercises, 167-178.

How points are to be

used with, 168, 169. 22, VITI.; 46,7; 50,¢; 57, 5; 64,

The com-

mas often omitted before and after short, 65, ¢.

Participles used relatively, 60, j—m. Participial phrases, 22, VI.; 69, 70. Particulars of a series, 238, XI.; 37,

88; 58, d; 98, 99; 120, 121; 125, 126.

Pauses marked and unmarked, 15, ‘ Perhaps,” 72, ¢, d. Period, rules and remarks on the,

with exercises, 142-152.

Persons and places, initial letters of

the names of, 262. Phrase, definition of a, 22, VI. Phrases in apposition, 41-48. contrast, 45-47.

Adjectival, par-

ticipial, and absolute, 69,70.

Ad-

Final, 78-80; 70, g.

Inverted, 83-85.

Having the im-

port of conditional clauses, 85, g;

89,5.

In the same construction,

98-100.

In titlepages, catalogues,

&e., 147.

** Power” not to be written pow’s, 199, f.

Prefixes in derivative words, 219, 220.

Prepositions, two, joined by “and,” “ or,” “nor,” 29, b. Primitive word, what it is, 28, XT1. Pronoun J, and interjection O, 265. Pronouns in appositional

phrases,

41, 42.

In the possessive case,

205, e.

Referring to God and

Christ, 261, j.

16; 51, 52.

verbial, 72.

of, 265, 2.

Possessive case, 42, hk; 204, 205; 216, 217.

Parenthetical words and expressions,

65; 69, d—f; 186,187.

197.

Distinguished by Ita-

lics or by inverted commas, 229. Planetary signs and aspects, 302.

Pronouns, relative, 57-59. Proof-readers, a knowledge of punetuation indispensable to, 11, 12.

Proof-reading, hints on, 308-315. Proof-marks explained, 316-318. Exemplified, 820. Corrected, 321. Proper names in apposition, 41, 42.

In an address, 68.

In signatures

When to documents, 147, 148. pronounced in accordance with their abbreviated forms, 149, g. In the possessive case, 204, 216. The simples of, when to be consolidated, and when to be hbyphened, 215, 216. To be correctly

speiled and clearly written in co

py, 302.

p. 344

831

INDEX.

Prosopopeeia, or personification, 266, 267.

‘6 Providence’ and “ providential,” the initials of, 260, @, e.

Punctuation, its importance, 1-17. What it is, and what its aim, 2, 19. Useful to all, but much neglected, 8-5. Even by authors and print-

ers, 5, 6. Means of acquiring a knowledge of its principles, 6, 7. Appeal, on its behalf, to authors,

journeymen compositors, appren-

tices, and proof-readers, 7-12. Qbjections to the study. of it stated

and answered, 12-14. Its essential principles fixed, 14. Imper-

fectly treated by grammarians, 14. Regarded by speakers in a false light, 15. Confounded with rhetorical, 15,16. Determined chiefly by grammatical principles, 16, 17. Tlustrated, 4,18. Exemplified in general exercises, 241-254. Q.

Qualifying words, two, without 8 conjunction, 83, d; 384, e—g. Three,

88, e, f.

Quantity, marks of, 239, XI.

Questions, 154-156. Indirect, 155, b.

Assertive in form, 156, c. Containing an affirmative quotation, 156, f. Introducing quotations, 156, ge

“Question and answer in the same

Reader of proof-sheets, matters to be attended to by the, 11, 12; 808815.

Reading-boy, directions to the, in reading copy aloud, 309, 810.

Reference-marks, 240.

References to books, chapters, and verses in the Bible, 100, 7; 151, 4, ¢; 274.

To other works, 268, XII., a;

273.

Relative clause, definition of a, 21, V.

Explaining the antecedent, 57, §I., Restricting the anteand a, b. cedent, 57, § Il., and a; 58, ¢ Whose antecedent consists of particulars, 58, d.

Relative pronoun followed by an ex-

pression enclosed by commas, 58, ¢. Separated by several words from

its grammatical antecedent, 58,f; 59, g. “Of which,” ‘ of whom,”

59, %. Adverb put for a preposi-

tion and relative, 59, %. Relative

and verb understood, 59, 7; 60, l,m. Present participle used for a relative and verb, 60, k. The

relative only understood, 60, 2.

“Such as,” denoting that which,

60, 9.

Remarks, short, 108, 109.

Remarks formally introduced, 138. Repetition of nominative in a differ-

ent form, 58, g 8,2. Of words or phrases, 34, i, j; 182, 188.

paragraph, 194, a.

Representative letters, and abbrevia-

138; 191, e.

‘‘ Revelation,” initial of the word,

Quotations, clauses preceding, 108; Quotations, read as interrogatory, which were originally affirmative, 156, f. Indirect, 229, 8; 267, 4 Quotations within, 230, 281. The {nitial in the first word of, 267, XI Quotation, the marks of, rules and observations on, with exercises, 228-234.

tions, 272-300. d. 264,

Rhetorical punctuation contrasted with grammatical, 15-17.

Rules and reports of societies, initial letters of the principal words in, a., 261

Running titles, or headlines, expla nation of, 270, Til.

p. 345

382

INDEX.

“ Scriptures” and ‘‘ Sacred Writings,’ initials of, 264, c. number of, in a headline, 194, d.

Section-mark, 240.

Semicolon, rules and remarks on the, with exercises, 113-128. Sentences defined, 20, I. and II.;

Consisting each of two

clauses joined by “for,” “ but,”

or “and,” 113.

Short, slightly

connected in sense or in construc-

tion, 125, 126.

Complete and in-

dependent, 142.

Interrogative and

exclamatory, 154-161.

parentheses, 169, f—h.

Used

Broken

and epigrammatic, 175.

Series of words of the same part of

speech, 37, 88.

Of phrases and

clauses, 98, 99.

Of expressions

common

Songs,

ballads, and

dependence,

120, 121; 178. Short quotations or remarks, 108,

109; 228, 229; 267, XI., a, b. Short sentences, slightly connected,

125, 126. Sideheads and subheads, 194, 270. Signatures to documents, how punctuated, 147, 148.

Signatures, letters of the alphabet or

Specification of subjects, or names of things, 128; 188, d, e.

“* Spirit,” ‘ Holy Spirit,” and “ Spirit of God,” usually begun with capital letters, 260, i.

Star, or asterisk, 240.

Stars, the three, or N.B., 287, V.

Subject and predicate, 50-54. - 60,51.

Exceptions to the rule on Subject repeated, 58, The copula, or a verb in

g 8, h.

the infinitive mood, 54, j.

Abrupt

change of subject, 175.

‘Such

as,” denoting

that

which,

60, 0. ** Such—as ” and “ such—that,” the correlatives, 98, a; 94, f.

“* Sunday ” and “ sabbath,” the ini tials of, 263, e.

Superior figures and letters, used references, 240.

Suspension of sense, 175, 191.

Syllabication, rules and remarks on,

224-226.

Exercises on, 226, 227. T.

Significant pauses, 175; 191, a. medical, arithmetical, algeAs-

tronomical, 802.

Simple word, what it-is, 28, XII. Simpler parts into which expressions are sometimes divisible, 116, 117.

Sizes of books, names of various, 271.

** So—as,”” “ so—that,”? the correla-

tives, 98, 2; 94, c, f, g.

Societies, principal words in the rules and reports of, 261, a.

With

separable or inseparable adjuncts,

dation of the bookbinder, 271.

braic, and geometrical, 801.

Specimen of proof-sheet, 820, 321.

Arabic figures for the accommo-

Signs,

hymns, often

pointed with semicolons and colons, 125, b.

the, 52, 58.

Series, the term, defined, 28, XI.

having

how to be written and printed, 260, h.

“* Section,” the dash put after the

21, III.

“ Son of man,” when used of Christ

Table of abbreviations, 277-800.

signs and characters, 301, 802. Technical expressions to be correctly spelled and clearly written in copy,

804. “Terms” and “ expressions,” how used in the present work, 22, VII.

Terms relating to books, their sizes,

&e., 270, 271, Terminations “ed,”

ad.

6 9@,77

and “t,” the participial, occurring

in poetry, 199, g; 200, 201.

p. 346

333

INDEX.

‘Th’,” and “t?,” the elision of the

e and o in, unnecessary, 199, f. “ That,” denoting purpose or def. Introducing a quotasign, 90, tion or a remark, 108, 109, a—e;

tions

and,” ‘ or,” ‘ nor,’’ 28-80.

Not connected by a conjunction,

33-35.

Two brief phrases, united by “and,”

fore,” 73, h, t.

“ or,” “ nor,” 98, b; 99, c. Two clauses, one depending on the other, 89,90. Joined by ‘ and,” “ or,”? * nor,” ‘* but;”? a verb being understood, 104,¢. United by “ for, ‘but, or “and,” 118, lid. Related, but not joined by

Preceding the first of two con-

Typographical marks explained, 316

267, a.

“ That is,? ‘to wit,?? &c., 72, a; 128; 188, d; 191.

“‘ The more—the better,”’ 93, a. ‘‘ Then,” “now,” “ too,” “* there-

f. “ There’ and * here,” 738, ““ Though,” between two words contrasted or mutually related, 45, c.

a conjunction, 180, 181. Two conjoined members of sen-

trasted words or phrases, 46, f. “ Though—yet,” the correlatives,

_ -818.

tences, 184, 185.

Exemplified, 3820.

98, a.

“ Though” and “ through,” improperly contracted tho’, thro’, 198, c. Three stars, how used, 237.

‘‘ Till,” not preceded by an apos-

| . trophe, 199, e. Titles of eminent men, abbreviated, 148, a; 274.

Titles of honor and respect, initial

letters in, 261, 262.

U and V.

Uses of capital letters, 257-269.

Italics, 269, 270.

Verb and its nominative, 50-54. Understood, 104, 105.

é¢ Viz.”? or namely,” preceding an example or a specification of particulars, 128; 1388,d. Understood, 191.

Titles of books, names of ships, &c., to be quoted, 229, e. Titles of books, initials of the leading words in, 264, 8.

Titlepages, authors’ names in, how

pointed, 147. Words in, displayed entirely with capitals and small capitals, 268, XIII.

”

* To,” signifying in order to, 79, h. “6 To-day” and ‘“* to-morrow,” commonly used without points, 74, 2.

‘¢ To proceed,” ** to conclude,” ‘* to gum up all,” introducing a paragraph, 70, 7; 181, e. “ To wit,”? 128; 188, d.

Transposed or inverted expressions, — 88-85. Two words, of the same

Correct-

ed, 321.

part of

speech, connected by the conjuno-

Vocative words and expressions, usu

ally pointed with commas, 68, IX.

When denoting strong emotion, with notes of exclamation, 68, a; 160, c. The personal pronoun in vocative expressions, 42, 7. Ww.

“What,” “when,” ‘‘ where,” indicating indirect questions or

re-

marks, 109, g.

‘¢ What,” used in an exclamatory sense, 160, b. |

‘6 When,”?

‘ where,” ‘ wherever,”

&c., in the latter of two clauses, 89, c, d.

“ Whether -—or,” the correlatives, 94, h.

“ Without doubt,” 72, a.

p. 347

334

INDEX.

*€ Word,” the initial of, when de-

220.

Borrowed from a speaker or

noting either the Logos or the

an author, 228-281.

Bible, 264, c.

mary importance, initial letters in,

Words in a series, 87, 88. sition,

41-48.

In appo-

contrast,

Words of pri-

264, 265.

having a mutual relation to others,

¥ and Z.

45-47. Correlative, 98,94. Omit- | .“ Yes,” ‘‘no,’?? when equivalent to ted, 79, 80, j, 2; 104, 105; 191; 195. sentences, how pointed, 180, d. Numeral, when they are to be pre-

ferred to Arabic figures, 112, ¢; 149, e.

Specification of words, 128.

Words thrown obliquely into the body of a sentence, 168-170.

Re-

peated rhetorically, 182, 188. Compourd, 209-218.

Derivative, 219,

THE

“ Yesterday,”? not separated

by a

comma, 74, 1. “ Yet,”

between

two words

con-

trasted or mutually related, 45, c. Between two contrasted words, the

first preceded by though, 46, f. Zodiac, signs of the, 802.

END.

p. 348

77H Epirion, PAGEs xii, AND 334, 16Mo,

Creatise on English Punctuation; LETTER-WRITERS, AUTHORS, PRINTERS, AND CORRECTORS OF THE PRESS; AND FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES.

WITH AN APPENDIX, ;

CONTAINING

Rules on the Use of Capitals, a List of Abbreviations, Hints on Preparing Copy and on Proof-reading, Specimen of Proof-Sheet, Fe. BY JOHN WILSON. NOTICES OF PRECEDING

EDITIONS.

This is undoubtedly the most complete work yet published on the subject, both as regards the amount of instruction conveyed, and the lucid arrangement adopted; and we cannot commend it too highly for general use, the more especially as the typographical execution of the work is so superior. — Norton’s Literary Gazette for March 15, 1855.

Rarely have we seen a book so attractive to the eye. Its rules of punctua-

tion are, in the main, accurate and perspicuous, — far superior to any other system of directions which we have read on thistheme. The volume contains much information on the minutia of literature, with which every scholar ought to be familiar, but of which many eminent authors are lamentably ignorant. We know not where so many particulars relating to the jinish of copy for the press can be learned. Astudy of this volume would save youthful scholars from many careless and uncouth habits of writing. The spirit and genius of the English language are intimately connected with some of the

questions involved in an accurate punctuation. He who can punctuate accurately can write perspicuously. — Bibliotheca Sacra, April, 1855.

A treatise that proposes to familiarize the principles of Punctuation, easily accessible in price and readily intelligible in its composition, cannot be other than welcome to all who write or print; and Mr. Wilson’s is certainly the most comprehensive and the most instructive that has come under our observation. .. . It is prepared with great care and good judgment, and no printing-office ought to be without it; as, from its simple arrangement, the compositor and reader will be enabled in an instant to solve any doubt tha. may arise in the course of their labors. In schools and families, it cannot

fail to be useful, equally to teacher and pupil; and even the accomplished to author may read it with advantage. Mr. Wilson has done good service literature by this little volume; and we thank him for it. — London Critic,

p. 349

NOTICES OF It is an excellent work for schools and academies, and for those who would

become self-taught. — Christian Freeman. We have never before met with any work on Punctuation which gave us ° 80 great satisfaction as this. — The Student.

The best book [on Punctuation] to be recommended is this by Mr. Wilson:

there is no other so elaborate and trustworthy. — Ladies’ Repository. This is a valuable manual. ... The work of Mr. Wilson is well calculated to supply the want, which has long been felt to exist, of a suitable text-book upon Punctuation. — Boston Daily Journal.

We advise any one, who wishes to understand thoroughly the whole art and mystery of Punctuation and Proof-reading, to get this volume. — Chris. tian Register.

Amore elegantly printed book than this little volume it would be difficult to find.

Mr. Wilson has evidently bestowed upon it the best workmanship

of his hand, as well as of his mind. — Boston Post.

This treatise of Mr. Wilson, a thorough practical printer, is the best we have ever seen, and in fact the only one we have ever seen worth having. Chronotype. We invite attention to this truly admirable work. It is one which no printer can afford to want, while to ordinary English scholars its importance

is incalculable. — Belfast (Ire.) News-Letter. A work which should be in the possession of every student who aspires even to write a letter. ... It is a perfect guide in all matters covered by the

title. — Water-cure Journal. This is a useful and valuable work on English Punctuation, and every one

can read it with profit and pleasure. ... The subjectis treatedin an agreeable,

instructive, and entertaining manner. — Boston Daily Atlas. A very useful and carefully executed treatise on a subject justly claiming

ettention, and commonly too much neglected. ... The classes are so large who feel their want of this kind of instruction, that we must anticipate for. our author the success which its merits deserve. — London Inquirer.

This work seems to us worthy of being in the hands of every letter-writer, author, printer, editor, and teacher. ... The work of Mr. Wilson shows much

familiarity with the principles of language, and the examples with which he

illustrates his text are well chosen. — Springfield Daily Republican.

This is a very neatly printed volume, on a subject much neglected, and very imperfectly understood, even by accomplished scholars. ... This treatise appears to have been prepared with great care and accuracy, and deserves a

circulation as wide as the country. — Liberator.

From a careful examination of the work, we hesitate not to pronounce it one of the most valuable treatises in the English language.

We trust it will

be adopted as a text-bouk in all the institutions in the country. -— Prisoners’

Friend.

p. 350

TREATISE ON PUNCTUATION

{f every author and letter-writer could be put in possession of this perfect little work, printers and correctors of the press would canonize Mr. Wilson

forthwith; for it would create a new era in their profession. — Monthly Religious Magazine.

The whole system is so simply and thoroughly explained in this book of Mr. Wilson’s, that any one may clearly comprehend the whole system of Punctuation by a careful perusal and study of this book. We warmly recommend it to all persons. — Newport Daily News.

This very excellent work should be in the hands of every aspirant to a true and correct method of English Punctuation... .The Appendix and Hints on Proof-reading, with an exemplification of typographical marks, are alone worth the price of the book. — Wew- York Day-book.

My dear Sir, — I have carefully read your volume on English Punctuation, and consider it a most excellent treatise. It places the whole subject upon on a surer basis than any work I have ever before seen. — which you write Extract of a Letter from the Rev. R. C. Waterston.

Dear Sir, — Many thanks for your excellent ‘‘ Treatise on English Punc-

tuation.” We have long needed a work which could show the philosophy aud common sense of this department of letters. Your book meets the want fully. It isa most scholar-like production, and J, hope every writer will be familiar with it.— Extract of a Letter from the Rev. Charles Brooks. We remember purchasing an English edition of this work some yeara since, and prizing it so highly that we tried several times, without success, to replace it, after it had disappeared from our collection... . Not only to

professional authors, teachers, and letter-writers, but to the intelligent public at large, this work especially commends itself. — Boston Transcript.

... Such was the experience, also, of a graduate from our excellent University, who said that he had acquired more. useful hints on Punctuation from a few moments given to the perusal of this book in the intervals of leisure, than he had from all the attention, voluntary or acquired, of an entire course of collegiate study. — Evening Traveller.

It contains all the necessary directions for self-taught writers and editors, a very large class in this country, and is a book of a kind absolutely necessary

to be read by every type-setter and proof-reader who intends to be master of

his art. ... Every person, who intends publishing his own productions or those of others, should have Mr. Wilson’s book upon his writing-desk—. American Whig Review. —

It is the best book on the subject with which we are acquainted. The rules are deduced from the best usage, and commend themselves to the judgment of practical men, and men of taste. The directions for Proof: reading and Correcting, appended to the main work, are concise and clear.

_.. We would recommend to every person, who in public or private writes the English language, to procure a copy of this treatise — Quincy Patriot

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