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HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY
PURCHASED FROM THB
BOSTON LIBRARY SOCIETY WITH INCOME FROM THE
AMEY RICHMOND SHELDON FUND I94I
IX: 0 OL 0) FI > AT -\-)
To be returned in five weeks. A fine of one cent will
be charged
beyond that time.
for each
day this volume
is_
kept
MODERN METHODS OF
BOOK COMPOSITION
THE PRACTICE OF
TYPOGRAPHY
MODERN METHODS OF
BOOK COMPOSITION A TREATISE ON TYPE-SETTING BY HAND AND BY MACHINE AND ON THE PROPER ARRANGEMENT AND IMPOSITION OF PAGES
BY
THEODORE
LOW
DE VINNE, A.M.
NEW YORK THE
CENTURY CO.
1904
V
HARVARD
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY /
Copyright, 1904, by
THEODORE LOW DE VINNE Fublished October, 1904
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CONTENTS Page
Chapter
I
EQUIPMENT. Types... Stands... Cases... Case-racks.
EQUIPMENT.
39
Galleys and galley-racks .. . Compositors’ implements Brass rules and cases for labor-saving rule and leads Dashes and braces... Leads... Furniture of wood and of metal... Furniture-racks .. . Quotations and electrotype guards.
III
COMPOSITION
79
Time-work and piece-work . .. Customary routine on book-work .. . Justification ... Spacing and leading Distribution ... Composition by hand and machine Proper methods of hand-work ... Recent mannerisms.
COMPOSITION OF BOOKS.
lil
Title-page ... Preface matter... Chapter headings and synopsis... . Subheadings.. . Extracts... Notes and illustrations... Running titles and paging at head or at foot... Poetry... Appendix and index Initials .. . Head-bands, ete.
DIFFICULT COMPOSITION Algebra... Tables and table-work... Music and music cases... Genealogies. Vv
171
Contents
vi Chapter
Page
VI FOREIGN LANQUAGES
231
Accents... Greek... Hebrew... German.
MAKING UP
255
The running title... Signatures... Notes, tables, extracts, and illustrations.
STONE-WORK
289
Stones and chases... Exact adjustment of margins... Locking up... Taking proofs... Corrections. .. Clearing away.
IMPOSITION .
|
331
Elementary principles . .. Schemes for various forms from two and four to one hundred and twenty-eight pages... Inset forms... Oblong pages... The leaflet ...Small pamphlets... New method of collating Folding-machines. . . Concluding remarks.
MACHINE-COMPOSITION Review of early methods . . . General organization Assembling and keyboard mechanisms . . . Learning to operate . . . Management of the linotype machine Temperature of metal... Treatment of matrices and of space-bands . . . The melting-pot, mould, and disk The assembling elevator. . . Correct keyboard fin-
gering.
397
PREFACE I“ A BOOK previously published the literary
side of type-setting was treated under the title of Correct Composition. This book, its intended supplement, will be confined to comments upon the mechanical methods of Book Composition. In ordinary conversation this phrase is undiscriminatingly applied to composed types in small pages, whether plain or decorated, of four leaves or of forty volumes. So considered, the subject seems almost limitless. It must be evident that there are too many kinds of books and too many fashions in type-setting to be thoroughly described in an ordinary duodecimo. The book composition here to be treated is that of the ordinary book of the established publisher—the plain book made to be used and read more than to be decorated and admired as an exhibit of typographical skill. As the plain book is always in most request, its construction should be the earlier study vii
“or whom this book -e buyer of a book -; value is in the im-
., of its information.
-.iahle type, tastefully .22s With proper mar-
- strong black ink on
=
~tentious paper. En-xplain the text, head-
_» 9¢ harmonious design = zaps of chapter br eaks
ony of print, here and
~ 3 bright red, are some
:ccractions; but after all
“se type-founder, paperprinter, the great value :
type or decoration, but
- tas written.
42 be given to decoration.
“per detail usual methods - the decorated book or
~ ow in favor would be a
oiek volume of facsimiles
~ would be required for an --- of medieval and modern <. but the book so prepared service to the young comerated bookis not a proper .
Swe
ate
day service. It might he “zesents suggestions of styles
Preface
1X
or methods that are impracticable in any printing-house with a scant supply of types or borders. Decoration is of doubtful value when it diverts the eye from matter to manner, from the thought of the writer to the skill of the printer. The unavoidably diminished performance of every experimental decorator with type, and the increased cost of his work, are other unpleasing consequences. No ornamental style now in vogue can be offered as one of permanent favor, for fashions in type-setting are as fickle as fashions in dress. To examine and compare the different styles of decorative composition that came in and went out of vogue during every ten years of the last century is to be forewarned that eccentricities of present popularity may be disliked in the near future. It may be that in my explanations I have been more minute than is customary in manuals of printing. An expert compositor may smile at the frequency of suggestions that he does not need now, but there was a time when he did need them. Every master printer of experience will agree with me that the apprentice needs minute instruction, perhaps to reiteration, in the rudiments of printing. To space words evenly, to put proper blanks between lines of display, to make up matter in symmetrical pages and to impose them
x
Preface
for the convenience of pressmen and binders, may seem trifles to those compositors who rate speed higher than skill or good taste, but the remark of a great artist may here be repeated, Trifles make perfection, and perfection is not a trifle. The equipment of a book-printing house with the new styles of cases and stands that are required in modern practice has received as much attention as space allows, but the list is incomplete, for new styles of merit are increasing In number. There is a demand in every printing-house for more compactness in the stowage of materials, with a proper provision for greater facility in their handling. As an aid to this object, suggestions have been made about new arrangements for leads, brass rules, furniture, and extra sorts of type. There are chapters that claim the attention -of a mature compositor. Every book-printing house is required at times to provide lines or paragraphs in the proper characters of foreign languages, or to set bars of music or formulas in algebra. To those who have little or no experience in the handling of the strange types required, the information here presented will be of service. In the compilation of this matter I have had many helpers, to whom I here renew acknowledgments and thanks.
Preface
xi
Algebra, based upon an article in Lefevre’s Guide Pratique du Compositeur, was revised and made clearer by Henry Burchard Fine, Ph.D., professor of mathematics at Princeton University. Music was specially written for this work by Mr. James H. Martin of New York. His treatise on this subject will prove a thorough explanation of a much-neglected department of composition. Greek has been revised by Benjamin E. Smith, L.H.D., editor of the Century Dictionary. Hebrew has been corrected by Mr. Frank Horace Vizetelly, assistant editor of the Jewish Encyclopedia. These departments of book composition are not common, but they are sure to appear occasionally in ordinary copy, and every compositor should be qualified to put them in type with a reasonable approach to correctness. Machine-composition was written for this work by Mr. Philip T. Dodge, president of the Mergenthaler Linotype Company. Correct Keyboard Fingering was contributed by Mr. John S. Thompson, instructor of the machine-composition branch of the Inland Printer Technical School, and author of a treatise of great value on The Mechanism of the Linotype.
MODERN METHODS OF
BOOK COMPOSITION
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
EQUIPMENT Types... Stands... Cases... Case-racks
TYPES
PRINTING-HOUSE that is
=<
su|
fitted for the practice of one
=|
branch only of printing,’as for
<2|
law cases, weekly newspapers,
w\|
or plain reprints, does not need
m54|
a large variety of faces or sizes of
type, but when it
is in-
tended that it; shall be properly equipped for all
kinds of book composition, large fonts of text types
on the bodies of 12- 11- 10- 8- and 6-point are indispensable.
Types on 9- and 7-point bodies, not often
required, may be provided in smaller fonts.
Types
on smaller bodies and of still smaller fonts will be 1
1
2
A book-house needs many types
needed for foot- and side-notes.
The larger bodies -
of 14- 18- and 24-point will be useful for the texts
of quartos and larger sizes, or as letter of display. To this assortment must be added small fonts of two-line capital letters for title-pages and plain
initials varying in size from 8- to 72-point. .
There
must be also types of bold face of many sizes, plain
. and condensed, for side- or subheadings; galleys, leads, brass rules, racks, stones, chases, wood and
metal furniture, and many labor-saving devices.
Nor is this all. To meet the notions of different buyers, there should be at least one complete series
of old-style type or some other variation from the
standard of modern roman letter.
The difficulty
of providing for unforeseen requirements presents
itself in another direction.
It often happens that
the largest fonts have been insufficiently provided with one or more characters.
Books must be ex-
pected that will call for an increase in the supply of capitals, italics, figures, points, quadrats, ete. Foreign languages and scientific treatises will require accents and signs that are not supplied with the regular font of type.
There is no book-house,
however large or well equipped, that does not have
to send to the type-foundries frequent orders for additions to large fonts, known as “ sorts.” In every printing-house supposed to be amply
equipped for miscellaneous book and pamphlet work, but a small portion of its types can be kept in daily use.
Buyers’ tastes are very capricious.
Supply must exceed demand
3
During one week nearly all the compositors may
be setting 10-point old-style; in another week they will be setting 11-point modern.
Material must
be largely in excess of daily needs, and the master printer must be accustomed to have nine tenths
or more of his type stand idle everyday.
Itshould
be assumed at the outset that in a fully equipped
book-house one thousand dollars’ worth of printingmaterial in types, presses, and their appliances will
be needed to keep each workman in reasonably
steady employment.
In the house that does one
branch only of printing, the average will not be so high, but in large book-houses it often exceeds one thousand dollars.
Yet the value of the types and
their appliances handled daily by each piece-compositor rarely exceeds one hundred dollars.
This
is largely out of proportion to the sum invested, but the large investment is not to be evaded. Composition can be economically done only when
there are types enough to keep the compositors in steady employment.!
It is possible, and sometimes
it is unavoidable when a font too small has been 1A printing-house always does work to disadvantage when composition has to be suspended for
want of type or sorts, but suspensions are frequent. There are many occasions for this suspen-
be filled with additions and alterations that keep compositors at correction -instead of composition. The return of forms from the press-room or foundry may be delayed by accident. When
sion. Copy may be sentin irregularly, and in too small quantity.
the font of type is small, any one
Proofs may be withheld by the
composition.
author beyond the time agreed
to the work should keep pace
on.
with his mates.
When returned, they may
of
these hindrances will stop Every contributor
4
Stands wasteful of floor-space
provided, to print a book from type not sufficient for a form of four or eight pages; but work so
hampered is always done expensively, and is liable
to peculiar faults.
Every prosperous book office
has large fonts of the regular text types, varying in weight from two thousand to twenty thousand
pounds.
The type required for a specified number of pages has been tabulated,! but the table makes no allowance for type that has to be kept standing by delays of author.
To estimate the weight of the type re-
quired for a work, begin with a knowledge of the weight of the type set up in one day by the com-
positors employed on that work.
Next estimate
the time that may be taken between composition and the return of the type for distribution. . This time will vary from two days to two months, for proofs sent abroad may be kept out much longer.
The weight of the composed types that have to be kept idle, and that are unavailable for any other
purpose, must be determined.
Type enough must
be provided to keep compositors employed for a
specified number of days, but to make provision for unexpected hindrances, the supply required may be
much greater than would seem necessary. The most noticeable objects in a composing-room
are not the types but the type vases, exposed breasthigh.
The stands that so uphold these cases are
bulky and wasteful of floor-space, for cases in use 1 See Plain Printing Types, p. 176.
Description of the stand
5
should have abundant light, although the height of an upper case near a window often obstructs the lighting of other cases in the middle of the room. It follows that some compositors may have to work
with insufficient light, too far apart, and without needed supervision or help from fellow-workmen. Italic, accents, or display letter that may be needed frequently, as well as the galley that receives com-
posed type, are often at an inconvenient distance.
Greater compactness is needed in cities where room rent and artificial lighting are serious expenses. It is not a trivial task to keep materials accessi-
ble and in good order, but in no workshop does the rule, “A place for everything, and everything in its place,” call for more rigorous enforcement than m the composing-room.
To meet the conflicting
requirements of closer compactness and of more space, some of the old and new forms of printing-
house furniture call for more careful examination.
STANDS
The stand (or frame, as it is called in England) is an open framework of pine wood made to support the cases of type.
The cross-pieces at the top that
connect the front with the back are at different inclinations, so that the lower case may be at a low and the upper case at a higher angle.
So placed,
the compositor can see and reach all the characters
exposed in the two cases.
6
The common double stand
Stands are made of two sizes, and are known as double and single.
The dimensions of the double
stand, which exposes four cases, are: length, 4 feet 6 inches; width, 1 foot 10 inches; height at back, 4 feet 6 inches; height in front, 3 feet 6 inches. ; The single stand that exposes two cases only, about
one half the length of the double, is not so common,
opireratisivem
Double stand of usual form, containing rack for cases.1 1 To break the habit of resting
the feet on the lower cross-piece of the stand, and to prevent the accumulation of pi or dust on the floor, some daily newspaper
houses haye the cases rest on strong iron bars that project from the side-walls.
Stands are
also made of iron pipe, but they are most used in news-houses.
Unhandiness of the common stand
7
Double stands are oftenest arranged back to back
between windows, so that four compositors can — work in the alley so made.
As the ordinary stand
has no provision for a galley, compositors have
to empty their sticks on galleys at an inconvenient distance.
It is often without a drawer for the safe-
keeping of copy and cuts.
It accommodates in an
interior rack, but with some inconvenience to the compositor, six or eight cases on one side of the frame, but leaves unoccupied a large space on the
other side, and a broad vacancy under the projecting upper cases at the top.
This upward projection
at the back seriously obstructs the light of those who work at a distance.
Stands have been made
low enough for the compositor to work seated, but they are not liked: nearly all compositors prefer to
stand at work. Double stands are also made with a support for a galley that can be placed inclined upright between
the two exposed lower cases.
This stand, more than
five feet wide, allows the space below to be utilized for the stowage of two tiers of cases.
A more use-
ful form provides for an inclined galley-ledge in a sliding drawer (which also serves for copy out of
use), so that the galley can be drawn out and put back without risk of piing the composition. A much-approved departure from the old form
is known as the Polhemus double stand,! which was constructed with an intent to have the back as 1 Designed by John Polhemus, New York, 1872.
8
The Polhemus double stand
accessible as the front.
Two compositors only can
work in the alley so reduced.
The exposed cases,
supported by iron brackets, are placed on the top of a broad cabinet rack that contains thirty-six cases, a broad standing galley, and a galley-closet for
y,
LIE
|
Polhemus double stand, panelled.
Front view of a panelled stand with galley-support and cases at the back.
The lower cases rest on angled supports
that allow these cases to be inclined backward.
movable galleys, but the last-named cases and gal-
leys are at the back and not at the front of the workmen.
The two compositors who work side
by side can empty their composed type on the galley behind them, which is equally serviceable for
Cases upon cabinets are preferred
9
correction or storage of distributable type.
Nor
will they be disturbed at work if a third compositor should withdraw a case from the rack.
In printing-houses recently equipped, cabinets with case-upholding brackets of an improved form are preferred for their greater compactness and
Rear view of the Polhemus double stand.
cleanliness. In the old-fashioned double stand the few cases in its rack below were widely separated
and unavoidably received daily deposits of dust and paperrubbish.
The old cases were held in their
racks by supports of wood that suffered wear from
continued rubbing.
In all modern type cabinets of
..c. “aus fastened to the
J.atimtitd serews are bet-
vues i woudl, for they en-ait tivre ease and lessen
woo ‘ove Che greater advan-
weaticap fo put eases closer « woinets of double size
.»
2
aleat
Sv pe-racks.
vs, .sa is designed to enable &
aerng each other, over
Lan ig ateen air-tight cases. wwe it front of a window. _on ana, a third compositor vu wcvess Co ten eases underedaprosacors are at Work. J ASRS
.
aw cabinet that serves as a
gar style bv iron braekets. a
re
oa
+.
ea AOE ts constructed to swing oe ciel th ean be tlted upward
chapeatter Co empty hts composed
ath his ease, or to make aN ew snaderue
x
of the catanet for the safe-Keeping
Sw ided for ornliuary composiden is a
~
* le of wood LOY tnehes wide. S2p Inches "~ Sach dee pr aduvided by cen Weed par-
O~
~
~~
ae
.
eparaly compartinents, or boxes, as
The ordinary upper case
11
called by compositors, so that there shall-be a box for every character of the font.
For the composi-
tion of ordinary copy in roman type are needed two
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Upper case, usual arrangement.
cases, respectively known as the upper and the lower case, so called from the positions they have on the stand.
The upper case has ninety-eight boxes,
which contain capitals, small capitals, and minor
sorts that are seldom used; the lower case has fiftyfour boxes, which contain the lower-case charac-
ters, figures, points, spaces, and quadrats. The arrangement of the characters in the upper
boxes of the upper case, as shown ‘in this diagram, is not uniform in every city, or even in every house. Some houses adhere to an old fashion of putting
the large capitals on the left side, but the greatest irregularity is in the freakish placing of fractions,
reference-marks, braces, and dashes, that are transposed by the chance piece-compositor to suit his
12
The upper case has too many boxes
own notion of convenience.
A strange compositor
who begins to work on a case that has been laid or
ayofoy
+]
b] c
d
1]2[3]4[s[6]7[8
:
i
s |elet*?
filo
=|»
ws| =
=>
altered by a new scheme has to relearn the loca-
Lower case, usual arrangement.
tion of the minor sorts.
As these sorts are rarely
used and are out of easy reach and inspection, he learns the new locations imperfectly and distributes
incorrectly.
In many offices the three upper rows
of the upper case are nests of dust and pi. It would be of mutual advantage to compositor and employer if these three upper rows were abolished, and the sorts assigned to them were kept in a separate case, as is done with accents and signs. Book copy rarely calls for any of these sorts.
The
reference-marks have been supplanted by superior figures, and the sectional braces by solid braces.
Fractions are rarely needed, not often enough to
justify the space they take.
If frequency of use
could determine the admission of extra sorts in the
Attachments to the case
13
capital case, italic should have preference, but no compositor of experience would favor this arrangement.
The inconvenience suffered in seeking italic,
fractions, or signs from a distant case is not so great
as that endured in looking for misplaced sorts in
dusty and inconvenient boxes.
If the lower case
were made longer, wider, and not so high, then the capitals and small capitals could be put therein and
be brought within easier reach.
Not the least of
the advantages to be gained by the use of one case only would be the increased diffusion of light in the
darker parts of a composing-room. The only practical case now made to remedy this old mistake is the “patent hinged case ”—so called because the upper case contains but five long tiers of boxes, instead of seven as is customary.
The
suppression of these two upper tiers shortens its height, and favors the increased diffusion of light. The two eases so connected by the hinge can slide
on the same cleat in the ordinary case-rack. Any unusual sort needed in composition can be put in a small annex box of tinned iron, which may
easily be attached to any large box, and as readily
be removed. The boxes of an ordinary upper case and lower case are supposed to be arranged so that the sorts most used shall be nearest to, and those least used farthest from, the reach of the compositor. It1is also
supposed that the unequal sizes of the boxes are in proportion to the unequal use of the characters
14
Irregularities in the lay of the case
they contain. correct.
These suppositions are not entirely
The boxes have been made of whole, half-,
and quarter-size more to suit the convenience of a ease-maker than to provide
for the intelligent appor-
tionment devised by typefounders.
The most needed
sorts are fairly placed, but
the justifying
spaces
are
scattered in very inconve-
nient positions.!
Annex box.
The upper case and lower
ease, when put upon the stand, expose a surface of about seven square feet, which is too large a surface to be covered by the travel of the compositor’s 1 Illustrations of
early com-
posing-rooms show that the first
printers tried to put all the types needed for the text in one large case. They laid the types in alphabetical order, beginning at the upper left-hand corner, and ever since we have adhered to one feature of this early usage.
Our modern lower case has in the first row of large boxes the letters b, c,d, e, f, fi, ff, g.
The
second row has l, m, n, 0, y, p;
the third row has v, u,t, r. The types of a, i, s, h, w, r, seem to have been put out of the old order to bring them in easier reach.
Printers
of
northern
Europe, who use text types without small capitals, prefer a case
in one piece, but in England and America the case in two parts
has always had most favor. The “lay” of the upper case has received many changes.
Mechanick
Exercises
In his
of 1683,
Moxon presents an upper case with the large capitals in the upper left corner, and with figures in the lower left corner. It has no small capitals. The
boxes that would otherwise be vacant are filled with signs. In his treatise of 1890 on Printing, Jacobi gives a diagram in which the capitals are put in the upper left corner. In his Practical Printing of 1892, Southward shows a model case with capitals at the right and small capitals at the left of the lower part of the upper case. In all the English schemes, figures are stowed in the upper case.
Space boxes inconveniently placed
15
hand, for he who sets five thousand ems of solid
type in one day has to make his hand travel about six or seven miles.
The hand-travel in distribu-
tion is about one third more. The more distant boxes on the left side of the
ordinary upper case are nearly thirty inches from
the stick in the hand of the compositor, and in a direction in which the right arm has not free play.
To reach too distant boxes, the compositor of low stature has to move his feet, at some inconvenience and loss in performance. A case that will shorten the travel of the hand
should materially increase the performance of the compositor. With this end in view, a smaller case, known as the Rooker,! was introduced, which is about one fifth smaller than the ordinary case.
It
is used to some extent in daily newspaper offices, but is rarely found in book-houses.
It holds letter
enough for brevier and all smaller sizes, but not
enough for a day’s work with larger types.
|
The accepted form of lower case has many serious defects.
Facilities for justification and even
spacing have not been considered.
The boxes for
spaces are too far apart, when they should be clus-
tered. Nor are the space boxes of proper size. In every font of letter the four-to-em spaces furnished
are about the same weight as that of the letter 1,
yet 1 has a full box in easier reach, while the fourto-em space iti a quarter-box is not so accessible. 1 Invented by Thomas N. Rooker, of New York, about 1858.
16
Analysis of a font of type
The most needed three-to-em space is about of the
same thickness as the lower-case t, but each sort occupies a box of the same size, although the type-
founders furnish in weight one half more of the
three-to-em space than of t.
Nor are the boxes
for other characters adapted to
like
supply.
Points
;: !? and types of J, X, and Z, averaging about
ten ounces each, have separate boxes as large as that given to the four-to-em space that is provided in a weight of nearly ten pounds.
Some of the
small boxes could be contracted without inconvenience, and the space saved be given to boxes that are now too small.
The difference between space required and space
allowed for each sort will be more plain after a study
of the scheme made by the Bruce Type Foundry 1 for a font of four hundred and twenty pounds: Lower-case sorts. Lower-case letters.
lb. . 209 .
11
02. 7
Figures,ete..
.
16
0
....
50
4
Points
.
...
Spaces2.
..
Quadrats
.
.
..
.
.
.
Reference-marks Fractions
.
.
6
.
lb, 28
0% 12
Romanaccents...
3
9
Capitals.
1
;
ct
Capitals. - - . + Small capitals
1
8
.....
Italic accents...
Leaders.
Upper-case sorts.
praces
33
8
Italic. Lower-case letters.
.
.....
Total
8
1
6 —
2
7 8
420
°
rially disturb the percentages
9
table.
14
* -
that have been specified in the
Every new analysis will
show decided inequality.
different
spaces and quadrats constitute more than one fourth
exactly
of the weight of the lower-case
alike, but theirtrivial differences
sorts. The weight of the justifying spaces is about one sixth.
1The
schemes
type-founders
are
of not
in apportionment will not mate-
2 The
Analysis of a font of type
17
The proportion that each class of sorts bears to the
entire weight of the font is shown in the following percentages : Lower-case
.
..76
Italic
..
. .09
Upper-case
.
..12
Accents, ete..
.
. .03
As the weight of the upper-case sorts is but twelve per cent. of that of the complete font, and as its minor sorts are in small request, no great advantage could be had by altering the size of the boxes or by
changing the location of their sorts.
A readjust-
ment of real value must be made in the lower case,
which takes in seventy-six per cent. of the font. Large bowes, Weioht. c
7
uae....iT7 d,i,r,m,each 10 8.
.12
——Quarter-boaes, Weiuht.
2.20
| space.
9
2.36 3.15
[ space. =. ....
4 2
4
10
Capacity 2.91
1.46 63
3.78
..
2
63
Fspace. . .18 t. ....12 h....13
8 8 4
5.83 3.95 4.12
. $. ,
1
.33
nm... o ...
.15 .15
8 8
4.90 4.90
?.
....i
8
4.90
oO.
11.64
I.
a.
...
8
Capacity
=
quadrats 37
e.
....23
Half-boxes. Vo. ews 8 9 - . 4 bo. ... 4 y,P,f,g,each, 4
P. . 2. ee 5 me....5
w.ee.e. 6 OH. .... 8 2
8
8
4
8
7.41
.95 1.26 126 142
24 24
4 4
.06 .06
2
.63
2
2... .. 1 212
63
3, 4,5,
~~
1.57 «16 ~
2.05 2.52
12 12
55
each
1
8
1.44
6,7,8,geach
1
4
1.60
q@.-....t1 fi. 1 k 1 j. x.
8 8 8 12 12
.48 .48 48 24 24
Z. ff
ffi fl.
1
1
12
12
24 33
33
24
18
The case has many neglected boxes
The lower case comprehends fourteen whole, eleven half- and twenty-eight quarter-boxes, and to them must be added the e box, which is always of largest
size.
The stowage capacity of each box, as com-
pared with that of the entire lower case, is given in these percentages: whole box, 3.57+ ; half-box,
1.78 + ; quarter-box, 0.89+.
The boxes for ¢, u, d, 1, M, Fr are too large ; those for h, t, 0, 0, and @ are toosmall. The four-to-em spaces should have a box three times as large; the five-to-em spaces, a box nearly twice as large.
For the half-boxes the want of proportion is not
so marked. The V could be put in asmaller box; b
and , could have a box one fourth smaller; the W
and the en quadrat are the only sorts that call for a trifling enlargement of their boxes.
The preceding tables show that a simplification of the lower case is needed, and that the upper case is also in fault.
Fractions, signs, and reference-
marks, that rarely appear in book-work, have posi-
_ tions too prominent at the top of a case.
It is to
make room for these sorts that the case is made high and the lighting of a room is obstructed. Small capitals have been discarded in many books and newspapers.
The only series in steady request are
the capitals, but they could be attached to the lower
case, as will be shown upon another page. Small capitals, signs, fractions, braces, and abbreviations could be relaid in the ordinary capital case, with other sorts in occasional request, and would be as
A lower case containing capitals
19
available in a rack under the compositor’s stand. If his copy called for these sorts in excess, they would be as accessible there as they now are, out
of easy reach.
The lower case should have more
room for spaces, and these spaces should be to-
gether.
Points of punctuation and double letters
should also be in groups.
To save useless travel
of the hand, and to make a more convenient lay of the sorts, this plan of a new lower case is offered :
Al|B|c|p|B|F]G@]A| | 1]s/K|L]MiN|o]P]Q
@| & | A8|CB} ze |
Lad
1/2/3]/4/5/6|7/8|R
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i
i
s
yi]m | o
bh
0
vlalwteenere
*Iyl ou
t
0
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k
z
q
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fi] 9 |S
fi| 0|T
ff} *|—|V
a
r
medi aeeeacee.
Ww
Proposed arrangement of lower case with capitals.
The length of this proposed lower case is that of
the old form, 324 inches, so that it can be stowed in the ordinary racks; its width is one ninth greater, or about 182 inches.
The addition of a tier of quar-
ter-boxes at the side reduces the capacity of the full boxes about a quarter of an inch; but they will be
large enough for all bodies below 12-point.
20
Lightens work of even spacing
If this form of case were in general use, the stand
on which it rests would be narrower at least four inches, and the highest point of the case upon that stand would be about six inches lower than it is now, to the saving of space and the improvement
of the lighting of the room. This diagram is offered, not as a correctly appor-
tioned case, but as an approximation that may lead to practical improvements hereafter.
A case that
exactly apportions the space for type would be too
great and too expensive an innovation.
The force
of habit that has kept unchanged for three centuries the sizes and relative positions of the boxes for the leading sorts has to be respected.
Changes
have been proposed only where change seemed of
real importance.
Some boxes have been enlarged
and others contracted, but there is no serious irreg-
ularity in the partitions that would increase the
labor of case-making, and no changes in boxes that would make the case confusing to the compositor. The greatest changes are where there is greatest need — in the sizes and positions of the space boxes.
The weight of the en quadrat and the justifying spaces is more than one sixth the combined weight of all the lower-case sorts, but the room that is provided in the present form of case is only about one half of what is needed. The en quadrat is twelve inches distant in one direction and the fourand five-to-em spaces ten inches distant in another from the composing-stick in the compositor’s hand.
Accessible spaces increase performance
21
As justifying and even spacing take up nearly as much time as the picking up of type, it follows that
the labor of reaching for spaces should be lessened, and that the spaces, which are repeatedly changed in justification and are more handled than any other
sort, should be clustered near the compositor’s stick. As the spaces are laid in the new schemes, the com-
positor can select the en quadrat for wide-leaded work, or the four-to-em space for solid work, with
as much facility as he now selects the three-to-em
space.
Large boxes and acentral position of the
spaces will be other aids to cleaner distribution. The two- and three-em quadrats are put to the
left, but the new position will be found quite as
convenient as the old one.
Few sorts are more ir-
regularly used than the large quadrats.
They are
often needed in open composition, but on ordinary
plain descriptive matter they do not deserve the accessible position they now have. The quarter-boxes for the capitals are one eighth
smaller than those of the upper case, but they are more accessible at the ends of the lower case. The half-boxes and whole boxes are of the old capacity.
This form of case should enable the compositor to increase his performance seven per cent.
To those who wish small capitals exposed, a new arrangement is offered in the diagram on the next page.
‘This case is wider and longer (243 x 324
inches), but it will contain for each box as many
types as ean be put in the regular cases.
22
=A lower case with all the capitals
For ordinary composition the old-fashioned stands and cases are sufficiently serviceable, but they are not helpful enough when the compositor has copy
that calls for two or more sizes of roman and italic,
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An arrangement of case for capitals and small capitals. This case has one hundred and twenty-one boxes. To make these boxes of the usual size and in similar proportion the case should be 20 X 42 inches, obviously too large for convenient handling. To keep it of the regulation length of 3244 inches, so that it could be put on the ordinary stand and in ordinary case-racks, it must be about one half wider, or 2444 x 3214 inches.
or for accents or display letter.
For every change
of body or of face, for italic, display letter, or accents, the compositor has to leave his stand and set the type from a case at a distance.
Compactness of the dictionary stand
23
To those who need many sorts in ready reach, an illustration is shown on following pages of a form
of stand made for the composition of the Century dictionary.
For this work the compositor needed
twelve cases readily accessible: Brevier, one upper case and one lower case.
Brevier italic, one capital case. Accents for brevier, one capital case. Brevier antique, for side-heads, one job case. Nonpareil, one upper case and one lower case.
Nonpareil italic, one capital case. Accents and signs for nonpareil, one capital case. Nonpareil antique, for subheads, one job case. Irregular sorts, two cases.
To save space and get the desired compactness, the Rooker case, of 14 X 28 inches, was selected as large enough for a day’s work on the sizes of brevier and nonpareil.
Two more Rooker cases at right angles
were put on each side, tilted inward as shown in the diagrams.
The compositor, who stands before
these cases, can readily reach all the boxes of the
four cases, except those at the extreme outermost corners.
A long-armed compositor can reach all
without swaying his body.
The illustrations show
the brevier upper and lower cases in the usual position (L and K in the diagram), with the accents to the extreme left (M) and the italic to the extreme right (I).
|
The framework of the stand below the extreme right and left is utilized by adding thereto racks
DIAGRAMS
tique;
‘The De Vinne
E, brevier
antique;
F, nonpareil
side-frames roman
m
drawn
1 AND2. A andB, cases forextra andirregular
case, with swinging
sorts;
out
2,
26
Usefulness of the dictionary stand
with supports, so that cases least used can be put in sidewise, and yet be kept within easy reach.
A
swinging side-frame, firmly hinged, is attached on each side, and with supports parallel to those in the stand. These side-frames are kept firmly in position by the swinging iron bars T and U.
When these
bars are locked, the cases on each side can be drawn
out at full length, exposing every box to view and touch.
The compositor is in the centre of three
sides of a small square, and can pick out any type he wants from about eight hundred boxes without
leaving his frame, and for most of them without change of position. He can select accents, or words
of italic or in display letter, without removing the case from its rack.
When the lower cases in the
side-racks are not needed, the swinging side-frame can be put back as shown in diagram 1.
To pre-
vent the cluttering up of other stands, and to save
needless travel, the galley is put on an inclined plane in a drawer under the case in front of the
compositor.
When he wishes to empty composed
matter on galley, he pulls out the drawer, unloads his stick, and then shoves in the drawer, where the
galley interferes with no other composition, and is
not so liable to accident as in the old position on an exposed stand.
Two of the job cases were made with capitals to the left, and two with capitals to the night. This
keeps the most used division of the lower case nearest to reach on right- and left-hand sides.
A new arrangement of spaces
27
The roman cases have the most needed spaces and
en quadrats directly under the compositor’s hand. This arrangement is made by putting the en-quadrat’ box next to the three-to-em-space box on the
other side of the broad bar, and by putting the fourand five-to-em-space and hair-space boxes next to the three-to-em-space box.
Not many other boxes
have to be disturbed for their readjustment.
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8
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Special lower case for dictionary.
clustering of the spaces saves time; it is an aid to
exact work and is much approved by all compositors.
These stands and cases cost but little more
than those of the old form.
They are as econom-
ical of space as they are helpful to compositors. Thirty compositors employed on one dictionary or book of like nature can work in better light, more pleasantly and efficiently, in a space of one thousand square feet than they could do in a space twice as
large from many cases spread out after the old plan.
28
Two schemes of job case
Small fonts of italic, or of display type that has no
small capitals or minor sorts, are frequently placed in one case of a form known as the job case.
ejay t}0{*|k} | |a}2|3]45/6|7|s j
Me lal :
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Bic|DIEIFIG
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iK|LIMiNjo
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=
ane.|
Job case of usual form.
To meet different needs, these job cases are made to many plans.
One form holds capitals, small cap-
itals, and lower-case; another has enlarged boxes for capitals and contracted boxes for lower-case ;
fai] 4/0 * kc
1/2|3]4[5/6|7|s]
Mle lal? || ils ¢
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| 1|K|LIMIN|O
rjlijmj|no}h
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a
Job case with enlarged boxes for capitals.
The triple case
29
another has large square boxes for figures only, of the two faces needed in some table-work. Petty fonts of display types on small bodies are
=
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seldom needed in the book-house, but they can be
Y|Z
Triple case for capitals only.
compactly laid in the triple case, which will be of service also for the proper placing of accents, regular or unusual, astronomical and other signs, and minor sorts of all kinds.
Every book-house needs
a few vacant boxes for irregular sorts. In one division of the triple case can be put the
regular accents for roman capitals; in another, the
accents for small capitals; and in the third division accents for lower-case types. _
For italic capital and
lower-case accents another triple case should be provided.
In all the cases the accents should be
laid with system: the same vowel in boxes on a horizontal line, the same accents in boxes on a vertical line.
A print of each accent pasted on its
30
Accent cases for roman and italic
proper box will be helpful to the new compositor, and a safeguard against reckless distribution. 4jalalalalaja|
|AJAIAJA]
6/8} 6/6
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y Accent case for roman.
the vacant boxes can be put peculiar accents not often needed, like the longs and shorts of schoolbooks, and the marked vowels of Danish, Swedish, and other languages. The tendency of modern authorship is to insist on a nicer attention to accents.
A\A|AlA]
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a
Accent case for italic.
Improved strength of modern cases
31.
Tray cases are now made to be used as nests for smaller cases of one-fourth size, which can be removed from the tray and be placed temporarily on
the upper case or the imposing-stone.
They are
used for brass rule, but will be equally serviceable, when divided into proper compartments, for the
signs of algebra and scientific work.
Sections still
smaller (5X 8 and 7x 74 inches, outside) are fur-
nished by founders for leaders, electrotype guards,
and the other characters
occasionally needed. A great defect in cases of old manufacture was ©
the splitting or warping of wood that was not seasoned. Some modern cases have bottom pieces of three thin layers of glued wood that have
been made one solid piece
under strong pressure.
Box-fastener.
The fibres of each layer
cross proximate layers at an angle, thereby making an effective safeguard against warping
or cracking.
Other makers attach to side-frames or to cases a
new form of runner that enables the case to slide easily in its rack and prevents needless friction and . wear.
The cases now made are as: strong as they
are light: the corners of the boxes are strength-
ened by a long pin and clamps of thin brass that securely bind the woodwork.
32
The tray case
Large types and borders that cannot be properly
stowed in the ordinary capital case are often needed in a book-house for the proper composition of title-
pages and publishers’ circulars.
For this need a
‘Tray case with movable partitions.
tray case is provided with movable partitions fitting into the slotted sides, that may be used with advantage for all sizes greater than 24-point. The tray case without compartments or slotted sides is of service as a nest in holding the quarter or smaller sections containing brass rules, figures, leaders, quadrats, or any kind of sort used in ex-
cess that has to be carried to the compositor’s case. ‘The sections are divided in compartments of different sizes for the needs of special work. Electrotyped illustrations that vary in size from an inch square to fifty square inches, often furnished in bewildering profusion, are difficult to keep in order; nor are half-tone cuts easily identified when
Cases for electrotyped illustrations they have been made accessible.
33
A cabinet case
for cuts, with index, is needed in all printing-houses.
sltla|DOlAl<|VIV
HlS/T/Sla/ Al eli} sa
Zi
alélilolalaléliléla
110
413135 | OR
+f/—-{[xj—-|]=
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N/alcln|6
8{ ale
1/2/s3af4|s5
6|/7{s8sj|]9|
0
a
=
A combination of quarter cases.
These cabinets are of full, three-quarter, and two-
third sizes, and contain many air-tight tray cases. Kach case has adjustable partitions that keep together cuts of the same class.
It is also labelled
with a number that refers to its written description
‘in the index book furnished with the cabinet.! 1 An equally useful safeguard each envelope has been filled, a against confusion can be made proof of all the cuts therein by numbering, in consecutive should be pasted on the inside of order, each cut as soon as it is its flap, and then the envelope received, by proving it, and by can be marked in ink on the expasting the proof with its num- posed side with the numbers of ber in regular order in a scrap- the pages from which the cuts book. Very small cuts, less than have been taken —as, DictionSo treated, they can one inch square, often made for ary, 17-32. dictionaries and the catalogues be handled easily, piled one ou of manufacturers, can be stowed top of another, or be laid in order with safety and compactness in in atray case. They are protected cardboard envelopes with box from dust, and can be found sides and of uniform size. When without troublesome search. 3
34 An exposed case for quadrats and spaces In all. printing-houses it is a rule that spaces and quadrats must not be distributed
in cabinet cases that hold
to 18-point.
petty fonts.
The
scatter-
ing of these sorts in many boxes, where they are found
with difficulty, gives need-
5-point
To prevent
this annoyance, a form of
from
less trouble.
to rest upon the top of the
quadrat case has been made
bodies
cabinet case or galley-rack.
It is intended to contain the
of different
quadrats and spaces for all ordinary lines of display exposed in a position where justification is facilitated.
spaces and
Other ingenious designs of cases are to be had.
lead case for 1- 2- 3- and 6-
A
point bodies, for very short
Case
for
quadrats
leads that cannot be stowed in the ordinary lead-rack,
is a valuable addition to a printing-house that does algebraic work or other nice
justification.
The leads so
cut can be well placed in a brass-rule case of four
a
wn
Quadrat case. sections.
Other forms of case
35
High and low leads and each thickness
of lead should be kept apart in a separate section.
ii}
{t
{I
48 pt. | 36pt. | 24pt. | | 18pt.|12 pt.)
Opt. | 6 pt.
The common form of quadrat case.
To save floor-space, cases of half-, two-third, and three-quarter sizes are provided for job-printers, who need many small fonts of display type that are infrequently used.
Job cases are made from many
plans for capitals only, and for capital and lower-
case letters combined, as in the regular job case of full size, and they are always fitted to accompany-
ing racks that are usually known as cabinets. . Petty cabinets are not desirable in a book-house. Cases of usual form that can be transferred from one rack to another, and that permit all similar
styles of type to be grouped together, will be found of greater service. The orderly arrangement of a composing-room is largely prevented by irregularities in the shape of its cases, stands, racks, stones, and closets that
36
Case-rack of wood
cannot be combined or neatly fitted to one another.
In the fitting up of a new office the stands, racks, and closets provided should be of the full size, half-
size, or double size of the ordinary double frame, so that each piece of furniture can be readily fitted to another piece when any new arrangement is desired.
CASE-RACKS a ||
Case-racks are required
'
for the stowage of cases not in frequent use.
In
all large printing-houses
that keep in stock one thousand or more cases, the case-racks occupy too
a
much room.
Sometimes
they are placed against
|a
a dead wall, and some-
a
o =
Case-rack of wood.
times in the interior of adark room.
To econo-
mize a needed space, they
are often made six, seven,
or eight feet high.
At
these too high elevations
the case-rack obstructs light, and the cases are dif-
ficult to handle and are liable to be pied.
Itis better
practice to limit their height to five feet.
The case-racks of display type should have sideframes, with supports that project about four or
.
Case-rack ofpipe-iron more inches from the frame.
37
This extension will
enable the compositor to expose the case and set a line therefrom without removing it from the rack.
— —
— a =
—
—
——
SS S —
SS SS
SS
SS S S S
Case-rack of pipe-iron.
Each case should be numbered with a large readable figure, and the duplicate of this figure should
be pasted on the side of the case-rack where the case belongs.
This method will be a safeguard
against misplacement, and of real service to the
38
Smaller sizes of case
compositor who begins to select type or distribute in a strange printing-house.
Many of the cases here described are in common use, but other plans are required for peculiar
work.
For the cases needed in the composition of
Greek, Hebrew, and music, see diagrams on later
pages under these headings.
Labor-saving brass
rule, borders of brass rule for pages of different
size, space rule, braces, dashes, leaders, figures, . and short leads of different thicknesses need cases with unequal compartments, that are often made
to order.
The quarter case that nests in the tray
case is the most generally useful form of small case, for it ean be removed from its tray and placed
within easy reach of the compositor without disturbing his work on the regular form of lower case. Small cases are also made to the sizes of 73 x 154 and 7X 74 inches, with compartments of unequal
space for the orderly keeping of short leads, leaders,
and irregular sorts in occasional request.
¥¥
Il
EQUIPMENT Galleys and galley-racks . . . Compositors’ tools . . . Brass rules and cases for labor-saving rule . .. Dashes and braces Leads . . . Furniture of wood and metal . . . Furniture-racks
Quotations . . . Eleetrotype guards GALLEYS AND
oA|HE
GALLEY-RACKS
galley is a tray of wood or brass with a raised rim on two or three sides, made to hold
composed type, for which service it is kept in an inclined position. The galley of wood, which has its rim at the head and on one side only, is frail and seldom used. The galley of brass, with a rim at the head and on
each side, is stronger and much more durable; it holds the type securely, and allows it to be locked up and proved on a press. Galleys are sometimes 39
40
Different kinds of galley
entirely of brass, but they oftener have wood rims lined with brass.
The length in common use is
Single galley of brass.
twenty-four inches.
If less than five inches wide
it is known as a single galley; if over six inches
wide, as a double galley; if short and wide it is
Ne
Galley of wood.
SS
ealled a quarto galley. For making up and tying up pages a short galley of brass with a low rit is preferred. The slice galley, usually of quarto shape and of wood, has no attached rim to the slice or tray on which the type is placed. The rim is made by
Slice galley, partly opened.
the sides of the open box in which the slice is kept. The slice has a handle at the narrow end, which enables it to be easily removed, with its tied-up type, from its box. ‘The slice galley is preferred for the
Gralley-racks of old form
41
making up of pages or jobs that are too large to be
seized by the hands, but that can be launched on
the stone after they have been tied up.
Galley-racks are temporary rests for the galleys while the type on them waits for the action of the
Galley-rack with swinging arms.
reader or maker-up.
Galley-rack with fixed arms.
The form frequently used in
a small office is a series of hanging arms attached
to a dead wall.
Sometimes the arms are of wood,
sometimes of pipe-iron, or with joints, so that each
arm can be folded back; but all galley-racks of this
42
New form of galley-rack
kind are wasteful of space, and invite the piing or
squabbling of the type on the galley. Tn all houses that have many galleys in regular
use the form of galley-rack shown in the accompanying illustration is more satisfactory.
It is a
series of inclined shelves, that permit the galleys
Shelf rack for galleys.
to be compactly stowed lengthwise, without risk of damage. When each galley is numbered, and a corresponding number is affixed to its shelf, and
this number is marked on the proof, there need be no difficulty in finding any galley in a large rack. The standing galley is an inclined tray, firmly attached to the top of a cabinet case or low caserack, made with longitudinal divisions to the width of the measures in greatest use.
oat
Le
ne
le eee mee
8H
It holds standing
Standing galley with racks
43
matter that may be reimposed and used, or dead matter intended for distribution, and should be placed in a good light.
The racks below this stand-
ing galley are often used for stowing letter-boards, upon which tied-up pages or jobs of dead matter
can be placed.
Si
These letter-boards should have a
Standing galley with racks.
raised rim at the extreme end to protect the matter from being jostled off when the board is suddenly
pulled out.
In the small job-office a part of the
standing galley is often fitted up with separating partitions for short leads and brass rules.
44
Composing-sticks of different designs
COMPOSITORS’
TOOLS
The composing-stick is a small open tray of iron
with raised ledges on two sides, and an adjustable knee-piece within that slides to and fro and can be
adapted to the width of any measure.’
It is made
in many styles, differing chiefly in the mechanism
Composing-stick, common form.
by which the adjustable knee is made fast.
The
common form has a screw-bolt that passes through
the back ledge and an opening in the movable knee. The Grover stick, which tightens the knee with its spring clamp and lever, is preferred by many job-
EN Wooden job-stick.
compositors, for it enables them quickly to readjust the stick to any width of measure.
The form of stick preferred in many newspaper 1 The sticks of the early printers were rude channels of wood, made to hold but two or three’ lines. The name has survived,
although the material has been changed. Sticks of wood of large size are now made only for the large type of posting-bills.
Tools for correcting
45
houses has the knee firmly fastened to the bottom
plate, so that the measure can never be unsettled. Another form of stick has two adjustable knees, one lapping over the other, and so arranged that’
the matter of two measures can be set in the same stick —one for text and one for side-notes.!
Newspaper stick of unalterable measure.
The stick needs care.
If dropped upon the floor,
or allowed to rust, or if the knee is strained by overtight spacing, it is liable to give bad justification.
The bodkin is a straight awl, firmly fixed in
a handle, which
Bodkin.
is used for withdrawing a faulty type from the form.
Bodkins are also made hooked or bent at
the point.
The spring bodkin, that shuts up be-
tween tweezers, is a more useful tool. 1French composing-sticks are shallow, holding about five lines of pica. American and British sticks hold ten or twelve lines of pica. It is claimed that the
shallow stick does not fatigue the compositor by its weight, and enables the left hand to follow the right in every movement of picking up type.
46
Brass rules
The tweezers, that enable a compositor to pick up
and arrange.types in the narrow columns of a table, ——
eel
L_ Tweezers.
is a serviceable tool for withdrawing type from a
galley or an unlocked form on the stone. The composing-rule is a movable strip of smooth metal, type-high, of the length of the measure re-
quired, against which the compositor places the The smooth metal
types that he puts in the stick.
allows an easy movement and adjustment of the SN
?
type when it is caught by the thumb.
The rule.
is also used for empty-
ing the contents of the Composing-rule.
stick on the galley, as a support for type in the
act of distribution, and for dividing and moving matter in the process of making up.
The compos-
ing-rules of job- and book-printers, who have to set
type to many measures, are usually of brass; those of news-compositors are oftener of steel.
BRASS
RULES
Brass rules, cut from hard-rolled sheet-brass and
planed to the standard height of type, are usually furnished to the printer in strips two feet long.
They are rolled to conform
4
Face
=]
Rules needed in book-work
Foot
to the bodies of the point system, and can be had of
all thicknesses from 1 to 12 points.
Different kinds of
face are made, but each one
is designated by the arbitrary number of the type-
founder. Printers designate
them not so often by number as by the names of sin-
Parallel.
gle, parallel, double, triple, dotted,
hyphened,
waved,
spurred, and fancy. The faces most used in
_
book-work
are
known
as
single, parallel,
commonly
double,
and
dotted.
The
waved, triple, and ornamental rules are never used in
i
plain composition.
hair-line and the flat-faced
ei
|
Dotted.
These faces are enough for
all ordinary book-work. The
ee
CN
CCC CCC TC SLY |
Waved.
should be in abundant supply, for they will be most needed, but the waved and
dotted rules may be of occasional service.
When arule
border is planned to consist
Bevelled or Flat-faced.
48
Machines for cutting and mitring
of two parallel lines, it is better to have these lines cut upon one thick body, for the value of the time given to the mitring and proper joining of rules on
two thin bodies is usually greater than the price of the thick rule. Brass rules, neatly cut to graduated lengths and
arranged in convenient cases, are furnished by all
type-founders under the name of labor-saving rule,
but some printers find it expedient to buy rule in strips and cut it, as occasion requires; to suitable
Mitring-machine.
lengths.
The tinman’s shears and file, or the saw
and mitre-box, which were once the only tools in use, are now supplanted by machines that cut the rule without bending, and plane the cut edges with
smoothness and accuracy. There are also machines
Labor-saving rules
49
provided with fine saws for cutting thicker bodies,
and with mitring adjustments for any angle. Rules of prescribed length should first be cut by the gauge a trifle longer than seems needed, and afterward trimmed down by the side-plane of the ordinary machine.
Mitred rules should be tested
in a true and square stick before they are used, for it sometimes happens that a set of rules may be cut of true length as to face, but over-long as to foot.
A slight deviation will prevent a true joint.
Side-
planing must always be done quickly and with force. If done feebly and timidly upon a weak machine,
the rule may spring or the plane may jump and
produce an uneven cut.
The face of the rule should
be first met by the plane; if the foot first meets the
plane, a rough edge may be left on the face.
Most
mitring-machines have dials accurately marked for
different angles.
In cutting a set of mitred rules
for a border, the gauge must be set alternately at
equal distances from the right-angled line on the dial.
The machine is to be preferred that firmly
holds the rule, so that it will not spring.
A miscellaneous stock of brass rules is difficult to keep in order. The labor-saving rules furnished
by the type-founder are usually cut to ens of pica for all the smaller lengths; but any house may need
rules of intermediate size, and the irregular lengths should be kept apart in a separate case.
Labor-saving rule cases are made to many plans. A diagram that follows shows a rule case made to 4
50
Cases for labor-saving rules
hold graduated lengths from one to fifty ems of
nonpareil.
Some of the small pieces in the small
boxes are mitred for right and left joints, so that
This isiselelelss| s1 aie] | 2 (2%
|
2 |2i
r
3d: 4 |4i
44 45
—
29 28
j
lagela
or | [sal | 5 lea Aa 48/47 48 49150 |34
6 |63)
213
74) 7 _
5
25 26\27
P| [8
o. oo. @
|e]
| 224
12/11)10) | 9/9: 2123, 43/42 41 40)39}38/37 _
—
—
~
_
—
1
=
The ordinary rule case.
they can be attached to large pieces in the larger boxes to form any length that may be desired. With these graduated pieces the rule border can be quickly formed without the delay of. mitring. ___}
eet Jot
21S
|
ll
a
j= jejei
east
Hilt
l i
|
| Naar
Tull
WIN
dba}
it
i
A rule case in four sections.
Cases for labor-saving rules
51
The rules in the following case are arranged in progressive order, so that any size can be found readily.
The strips that divide the compartments
are sunk in some places to allow the rule to be seized by the fingers, and raised in others to pre-
vent its bruising from another overlying case.
As
Improved case for brass rule.
brass rules of plain faces are needed now more than flowers or borders of type-metal, they should
be kept in ample assortment and in liberal supply. It is also better that each thickness and face of
rule should be kept apart in separate cases.
Faces
that are easily distinguished may be kept together, but single and parallel rule should never be mixed.
52
Rules to be selected with system
That rule case should be preferred in which cut
rules can be laid vertically, so that all rules rest on the same base.
When rules are so laid, the little
differences of length can be readily noted. It is bad practice to expose rules upon a stand, where they may be bruised by overlying galleys.
Brass is harder than type-metal, but the edges and hair-lines are easily damaged, and this damage is
always noticeable in print.
The counters or chan-
nels of parallel and double rule are usually cut at a sharp angle that makes the lighter line weak and easily bruised. To insure uniform height and true joints, all ad-
ditions made to stock rules should be bought from the same foundry.
Rules from another foundry
may not be cut to the same height or set of face. The faces selected should be fe®¥ in number.
The
bodies of 1, 2, 4, and 6 points are enough for ordinary work. A large supply of a few faces is more useful than a small supply of many faces.
As with leads, rules must be selected with system, to prevent confusion and needless expenditure. Rules often have to be pieced, joined, or mitred, and it is important that the new pieces should be of the same face and body.
When purchases of many
faces of rule are made without system from differ-
ent makers, the rules so bought may differ in height and face, and be combined with difficulty.
For ordinary letterpress work the 2-point rule of hair-line face will be found of most usefulness for
Special rules needed for electrotyping separate-columns in tables.
53
The rule borders for
these tables should be about 4 or 6 points thick,
with their thick lines flush to one side, in this way:
The thick line flush at one side permits neat joints
at the corners of a border without mitring, and also allows an exact connection with the cross-rules of tables.
For the rules that divide the columns of a
page, or that follow a running title, or that precede foot-notes, the thicker body of 6-point with blunt bevel should be preferred.
|
Flat-faced rules, much used for table-work, should
be flush with the body on each side, but for special
conditions they may be made with a bevel on one side only.
For electrotype work the thin bodies of hair-line
brass rule are objectionable in all places where they are not protected by near-by lines of type.
Their
sharp-sloped shoulders make a narrow impress in the moulding wax, which impress is often bent or
thickened when the moulding plate is lifted from the form of type.
The impress may be too narrow
to get its needed share of blacklead, or even of
soldering tin.
It often happens that the backing
metal of an electrotype plate does not entirely fill
o4
Imperfections of some thin rules
the impress of a moulded rule. It follows that the rule in this unprotected spot bends or gives way under the pressure of the printing-press, making a crooked or thickened line. This fault is common. It is rare to see in a book printed from electrotype plates all its hair-line rule borders of uniform appearance, or exposed cross-rules that are of uniform straightness and thickness.
This fault, too
often laid to the pressman, is really caused by the
thinness and sharpness of the brass rules.
Brass
rules with hair-line, intended for electrotype work,
should have blunt angles and‘high shoulders. Labor-saving rule, accurately cut to graduated lengths, is of advantage in the composition of ordinary work that has to be done im haste, but it should be generously provided and carefully handled. Un-
der the kindest usage the corners will soon round or wear down, making a white line or a blemish where
it should show a perfect joint.
For very exact work
it is safer to use rules of one piece only. Borders of hair-line rule on 2-point body for inclosing large pages of type should be avoided, for
they make needless delay and trouble in ecomposition and presswork.
Around small pages in small forms it is possible to print thin rules fairly; on large pages and in large forms they are always unsatisfactory. For a border line the face of 1-point thickness is to be preferred to the hair-line rule. The border on each side of a page should always be single and perfect pieces of a thick body. When
|
Dashes, braces, metal rules
59
the rule is thin, it is rarely mitred for a border with accuracy.
Even if accurately mitred, the corners
may not join.
A slight crook in the chase-bars, or
slight unevenness in justification or locking up, will prevent the joint.
This difficulty is so common that
few publishers order pages electrotyped with the
rule borders on the plates.
They prefer to attach
the rules to the patent blocks, on which the rules cannot be disconnected by any ordinary accident.
DASHES
AND
BRACES
Brass dashes are made to a variety of faces, but the
ones in most request are the single, parallel, and
double.
The ornamental
faces, formerly known as
French dashes, are now not allowed in book-work.
Brass braces are made and sold in sets, usually on 8-point body, varying in length from four to _twenty ems, but they are seldom used in book-work.
A
lighter face, as used in alge-
—~——_ oS —_ ~~ —___—
bra, is now preferred.
Metal rules,
made from
solid type-metal and cast in moulds to the height of type, are rarely used, for the metal
is unavoidably soft and may be porous, and the rule
made therefrom must be weak and lable to injury.
ou
6
Space-rules and leads
Space-rules are short pieces of metal rule of hairline face, on 2-point body, cast to even ems and
ens of the regular bodies, but chiefly to bodies of 6- 8- 10- 12- and 18-point.
They
i
are made for narrow columns in which they are used, but unwisely, in place of
Space-
the length of even ems of the irregular
short cross-rules are needed. vertical brass rules.
rules.
Sometimes
Space-rules cast to
bodies of 7- 9- 11- and 14-point are made
to order only.
Two or more bodies of the same
face in the same house should have a distinct nick
on each body and be kept apart in separate cases.
LEADS
Leads are thin blanks of soft type-metal cast or
rolled of many widths from 1-point to 6-point thick, in strips eighteen inches long.
They are used to
widen lines of type, to extend composed matter, and
to make print more readable.
They are made high
and low: the high leads that come up to the shoulder of type are used only for electrotype or stereotype composition; the low leads, as high as low
spaces, are used for letterpress work.
The thinner
leads, necessarily of high price, are rarely needed.
Leads of 2-point thickness are most used, but leads of 3- and 4-point are common.
Intermediate sizes
should be avoided, for they are not readily identified by the ordinary compositor.
If mixed with
Illustrations of leads
of
approximate sizes, they are not easily separated and may make great trouble.!
For ordinary book-work the bodies of 1- 2- 3and 4-point will be found ample.
The 1-point lead,
rarely used for a text, is always of service in justi-
fying proximate bodies.
Leads of different thick-
nesses can be doubled to make blanks of any other Thickness of a three-to-pica lead. ee
Thickness of a four-to-pica lead. Thickness of a six-to-pica lead. Thickness of an eight-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a ten-to-pica lead. Thickness of a twelve-to-pica lead.
width.
One thousand pounds of leads so selected
will be of more general service than two thousand pounds not selected with system.? In planning a composing-room, & proper system
should be devised for keeping leads in good order. For the smaller measures leads have to be provided in lengths graduated by quarter-picas, for middle 1 Leads of irregular thickness, as of five- seven- and nine-to-
Under no circumstances should they be made a part of the com-
pica, should have special nicks
mon stock.
cut on their edges with a saw, so that they can be identified at a glance. When the work containing these irregular leads has been finished, the leads should be papered up and put away.
2 Very thick leads, commonly called slugs, on 6- 8- 10- and 12point bodies, are useful as white lines and foot-lines in making up. They are readily made on the linotype machine.
58
System in storage of leads
measures by half-picas, for broad measures by full picas.
In large printing-houses the lengths most
needed are furnished in weights of thousands of
pounds.
To keep a large supply of leads on stand-
ing galleys is wasteful of useful room; to put them
pell-mell in boxes or bins invites damage and disorder.
A common form is a stout upright closet,
dividedin pigeonholes for many sizes, appropriately
marked with the length of each lead.
.
Another methodis to provide a series of boxes
on the top of a low table or cabinet case.
Small
Lead-cutter.
collections of leads may be put in partitions upon
a standing galley, making each partition exactly
the width of the lead for which it is adapted.
They
can be kept there in good order with little trouble.
Separate galleys or racks should be used for different: thicknesses of leads.
A very large quantity of
any measure in frequent use may be piled neatly in
a type-box or bin, but it is impracticable so to treat all the leads for the numerous measures of a large
|
Lead-cutters printing-house.
59
They should be exposed together
and made accessible. Lead-cutters are made of many patterns: some
are for cutting leads only, others for cutting leads and brass rules.
Cutters with knives that meet at
a wide angle bend the lead or rule.
The best lead-
cutters have an upper knife that descends at a slight inclination, cutting like a chisel.
A lead-cutter in-
Rule- and lead-eutter.
tended to cut brass rule of even moderate thickness should have a compound lever as well as a strong
knife. Slugs and rules of 6-point and larger bodies are more neatly cut with a circular saw.
60
Suggested form of lead-rack
As leads have to be provided for all measures, of many thicknesses, and of stereotype and letterpress height, they should be ordered with system, to prevent needless and wasteful expenditure. ——
A new form of lead-rack,
The weight of leads in all the widths required fora book-house working in many measures should be at least one half the weight of the text type. In some houses the leads weigh more than the type.
a
the leads in nonpareil ems.
provided for the leads that are more frequently used.
properly, will
be
flush at their outward ex-
posure. This treatment pre-
shown
stowed
on
of the length of the lead it is to contain, the leads, when
previous
As each tier is made exactly
a lead too short will be quickly perceived by its in-
of the
tribution: a lead too long will project and be noticed;
lead-rack
vents misplacement in dis-
dention. Leads should never be pieced.
It is practicable to
make up many new measures by a combination of
Cros -section
|
[ page.
Two tiers or channels are
62
Furniture of wood and metal
two or more leads, but the work so done is usually
imperfect, and the value of the time lost in piecing
is more than that of the new leads.
For all broad
measures it is better to have leads of proper width
in one piece of metal.
Full-length leads can be doubled with safety, but
treble-leading is never to be recommended, for it makes composition spongy, and tends to the hanging or bowing of the ends of lines on a wide page.
When new leads are bought to be added to a previous supply of old leads, the new leads should
be used together on separate pages or columns.
If
the new are mixed with the old, there will be irregularities in the make-up and register.
Old leads
are always a trifle thicker from accretions of dust. To prevent the sponginess of treble-leading, two-
to-pica leads, or nonpareil slugs as they are oftener called, may be used.
Slugs of still thicker bodies
are also useful for foot-lines and for the divisionline of double-columned octavos.
FURNITURE
OF
WOOD
AND
METAL
Furniture is the name given to all the low pieces
of wood or type-metal that have to be used for the larger blanks in or about a page of type or within
the chase prepared for a form of type.
Cherry
wood is most common; pine is used only for post-
ers and coarse work.
Metal is preferred for open
pages and work of exact register.
Reglet and side-sticks
63
Wood furniture is usually furnished in lengths of three feet, and of many widths from two to twelve picas.
For all work printed from type, furniture
is made to the height of the low quadrat, or about five eighths of an inch.
Electrotypers prefer the
height of seven eighths inch.
Reglet is the name given to thin wood furniture less than two picas wide.
The widths of pica, non-
[mf
_[m]
Gi
—s
=
A form of type in chase, fitted with furniture.
A, head-bolts; B, gutters; c, side-sticks; p, foot-sticks; E, quoins; F, chase; G, short cross-bar; H, dovetails; |, slots for cross-bar; K and L, chase furniture.
pareil, and great primer are in greatest request, but other sizes can be had of the thickness of any body.
Side-sticks, or bevelled furniture, are the inclined planes that secure forms of type after they have
64
Storage of furniture
been tightened by quoins. For large and heavy forms of type, iron side-sticks are preferred, The pieces between pages 1-8, 2-7, 3-6, 4-5, are often called gutters ;1 those between 1-4, 2-3, 6-7, 5-8, are the head-bolts; the inclined planes at the foot and sides of pages are the bevels or foot- and side-
sticks; the blunt wedges between the chase and the bevels are the quoins. Furniture is more difficult than leads to keep in order.
The usual practice of the small office is to
buy furniture in yard lengths; to allow compositors to cut it up without system as new lengths may be needed, and finally to throw it, when out of use, pell-mell into an open drawer.
This disregard of
system wastes time and material.
Larger offices
usually provide a series of deep pigeonholes against a dead wall, with a separate compartment for each regular length of furniture or reglet.
For irregular
lengths special compartments are seldom provided, and these odd lengths are too often put in wrong places and make confusion. The storage of furniture flatwise in pigeonholes or in exposed pockets of uniform depth invites dis-
order.
Each pocket should be exactly the depth of
the furniture made for it, so that each piece will
reach the end of the pocket and yet be flush with the face. When the pockets are of uniform depth 1 Gutters are so called because
ink from the inking roller that
they have a rounded channel passes over the form. Ina few planed in the middle of the wood, houses the thin strips near cross to prevent it from receiving bars.are called gutters.
Plan offurniture-rack
65
the shorter pieces cannot be seen and the longer pieces are annoying projections.
The open pocket
amis
—
J
has another disadvantage in making no separation
Furniture-rack.
for furniture and reglets of different widths: to get. several pieces of one width the compositor has to
assort the contents of the pocket.
Long pieces of
reglet should not be mixed with long furniture. 5
66
—
Plan of reglet-rack
The surface area of the blank space that is often required inside the chase is usually as much as and
sometimes more than that required for type.
For.
this reason there should be provided at least as much surface area of furniture as of type.
It is equally
important that the furniture should be of gradu-
ated sizes, in proper places, and readily accessible.
A compositor should be able to select from office stock any length or any width of regular furniture as easily as he selects a needed size or sort of type. It is as bad practice to require him to cut furniture
for ordinary needs as to have him cut leads. For the more orderly stowage of graduated wood
furniture, the furniture-rack shown in the illustration on previous page is provided by printers’ supply houses.
It is made to hold five hundred pieces
of furniture.
There are eight pieces of each length
of the widths two, three, four, five, six, eight, and
ten picas.
There are eight lengths between twelve
and sixty picas, which are graduated six picas apart. Another style of rack is made to hold lengths from sixty to one hundred and twenty picas.
It is an
improvement on the disorderly furniture-drawer,
yet it is imperfect, for every printing-house needs furniture of lengths but one pica apart.
Even if
the intermediate pieces are not supplied at once, a place should be provided for the new sizes. A labor-saving reglet-case is also kept on sale, which holds from eighteen hundred to twenty-four hundred pieces of pica and nonpareil.
It contains
New form of cabinet for furniture
— 67
nine distinet sizes, graduated six picas apart, from twelve to sixty picas.
This is not enough, for there
should be forty lengths between these extremes. As the reglet stored does not stand upright, resting upon its cut edge, it is liable to disorder. The furniture-cabinet shown on page 69 contains enough of sizes for all the usual requirements of a book-house.
It is intended to be put under an
Reglet-rack.
imposing-stone of the dimensions 33x 86 inches. As making up in a book-house is rarely done on
the stone, the pulling out of a box does not hinder or annoy the imposer of a form any more than the
pulling out of a chase from the chase-rack, which is usually kept in the same place." 1 When a dead-wall space is more available, the cabinet can be divided in two long sections, to be placed against this dead
wall, but it should be where its contents can be easily examined. Furniture needs a fair light as much as type or leads.
68
Plan of furniture-cabinet
It contains twenty-eight drawers—twelve on one side (not shown in the illustration) and sixteen on the other.
These drawers are of unequal height,
to suit the different lengths.
Each piece of fur-
niture or reglet rests on its eut edge or narrow end. If too long a piece is put in, the drawer cannot be closed; if too short a piece is put in, its shortness is at once detected.
The vertical rest of each piece
is a safeguard against the mixing of lengths. Each drawer is divided into two compartments that hold proximate sizes like twelve and thirteen ems pica, so that the compositor can readily select either.
Each compartment contains six longitudi-
nal partitions for the six different widths of nonpareil, pica, two-line, four-line, six-line, and ten-line. To pull out or shove in the drawer does not throw
the standing pieces in confusion, even when each partition may be but half full, for if they are jostled
to fall, they must fall sidewise. Each piece is neatly planed and squared, and has its length in picas stamped by a punch in figures on its end. These drawers contain fifty-six lengths, beginning with twelve picas and advancing by one pica
to sixty picas. Beyond that the progression is by one and a half picas, or great primer—a graduation that is close enough for all ordinary work.
For
lengths beyond seventy and a half picas, that are rarely required in book-work, two or more pieces can be combined.
As each piece is properly num-
bered, the compositor who may pick it up when out
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70
Storage of long furniture
of its place knows at once in what drawer of the
cabinet it should be placed.! For posters and large job-work another form of
furniture-rack must be devised. Drawers that hold many pieces of long furniture are too weighty to be moved in and out with ease.
The open pigeon-
holes with pockets of unequal depth (after the sys-
tem of the lead-rack as shown on page 60) will be found convenient, but these pigeonholes should be properly subdivided. with partitions for the separa-
tion of different widths.
To be of general and last-
ing service these pigeonholes should be constructed
on a generous plan, to make special place for every length that may be needed, in graduated lengths at most two picas apart.
It may not be expedient to
get all sizes at once, but places should be reserved for new sizes when they are bought.
Where space
is crowded it may be judicious to keep long furni-
ture under different stones or cases; but it is better . practice, when the space can be given, to construct against a dead wall a large rack with a pigeonhole for every size in use, with provision for intermedi-
ate sizes to be afterward furnished. Wood furniture is cheap, light, and can be easily
handled, but it is liable to shrink, fray, or warp. 1 The cost of a fully equipped cabinet of this pattern is not small, but it is much less than the sum usually paid every year for wasted time, wasted material, and unavoidable confusion. A cabinet of this form, with fair
care, will be serviceable for more than a lifetime. It will not only prevent waste of labor, but will help the compositor to produce quicker as well as neater work. Neglect to provide cut furniture is not wise economy.
Metal furniture needs care
71
For exact work, metal furniture is always preferred. The illustration
annexed represents a
view of an old form of
sectional
——
meta? furniture, which
is made in lengths of
twelve inches, of seven widths from two- to tenline pica.
This form has the merits of strength,
stiffness, and accuracy, but it is not adapted for combinations of unlike pieces.
Combination metal furniture is made of many
widths from three- to ten-line pica, and from five-
to thirty-line pica long. Its open centres make it light, and its interior
bridges insure a reasonable strength.
There is
another form, rather stronger and heavier, with
hollow or oval centres, without connecting bridges.
FURNITURE-RACKS
Metal furniture that has been roughened by care~
less handling cannot be combined with precision.
Nor can combinations of small pieces be safely used for the head-bolts or gutters of book-forms, for they lack the stiffness that is required to keep
types squarely in line.
For the head-bolts and gut-
ters of book-forms single pieces are better.
The
roughening of improved metal furniture is largely
72
Rack for metal furniture
caused by bruising it with the shooting-stick, or by throwing the pieces pell-mell in an open drawer. To keep the edges free from bruising, it should be handled
with
as great
care as types; it should not be dropped upon the
stone; it should be kept in neatly piled columns
and in pigeonholes that have a separate compartment for every size.
Large pieces of combination metal furniture
are of limited value; the ' larger they are, the less Rack for metal furniture.
they can be used.
Many
printing - houses
discard
them, and make up blanks from a combination of small pieces that can be used anywhere. QUOTATIONS
The most serviceable forms of metal furniture for inside composition are quotations cast on the body of three by four picas, but they are
sometimes connected in one piece, in lengths of eight, sixteen, and twenty
picas.
As they combine the good
qualities of strength and light weight with adaptability to all pages, they are used in some houses to
Quotations with bearers
73
the exclusion of other forms of metal furniture. Justifying spaces of three-line and four-line body should be a part of every supply of quotations.
It
is not good workmanship to justify them with the
quadrats of smaller bodies, for they annoy the electrotyper.
Pages to be electrotyped need for
all their large blanks a special form of quotation, of higher body, concave on two sides, but solid and
©
O
©
‘e)
tight at top, with projecting disks or bearers that equalize the pressure of the moulding press and prevent the splurging of the moulding wax.
ELECTROTYPE
GUARDS
Pamphlets and books of limited edition continue to be printed direct from type, but all books that
are expected to have large sale from two or more editions are invariably printed from electrotype The proper preparation of the pages for the
plates.
different processes of moulding and finishing in the making of these plates calls for additional guards within the pages, and especially in all chapter heads
and tails.
The guards provided by type-founders
74
— Quadrats needed in electrotyping
are quadrats cast with shoulders as high as those
of the types of the text.
On the top of these quad-
rats are circular disks full type-high, that serve as
aids to even pressure from the moulding press, and prevent the outspreading of the moulding wax. These quadrats with guards serve another useful purpose by protecting the letters on the plates from bruises while they are in the hands of the finisher
Quadrats preferred for electrotyping.
and prover.
Much to the bewilderment of an un-
practised proof-reader, these black disks often appear on the author’s proof, but they are routed off when all corrections have been made and the plates are pronounced ready for press.
He
16
Routine of book composition
to the compositors includes the distribution of type and the correction of the compositor’s faulty work as it may be marked by the office proof-reader, but it does not include other service that is needed to perfect the contract with the publisher.
Making
up and stone-work, proof-reading and superintendence, all of equal importance, are not paid for by
the piece, for the work done in each one of these departments is of too irregular a nature and is too unequal in its requirements of time and dexterity to be adjusted by fixed prices.
They must be done
by day’s work, or “on time,” as printers phrase this method.
The cost of this supplementary work is
variable, seldom less and often more than one half
_ of the cost.of the type-setting that has been done
by piece-hands. Although the composition of books
is usually rated as piece-work, it should be under-
stood that about one half of it in value is timework of uncertain cost.!
CUSTOMARY
ROUTINE
ON
BOOKS
When an agreement has been concluded with the author about the style of an mtended book, the
copy should be examined by an expert, who will take note of the possible need of additional sorts 1 Spelling, abbreviation, punctuation, and other matters that belong to the literary side of type-setting have been noticed in the treatise on Correct Com-
position. In this and following chapters. remarks and suggestions have to be confined to the purely mechanical side of book composition.
Minute instructions are needed that may be required in excess.
U7
These sorts may be
accents, signs, small capitals, italic, figures, or new
characters, but they should be procured and put in ease before the copy is given to the compositor.} To begin composition without the needed materials, and to “turn for sorts,” is always wasteful of time and productive of error.
Obeying general direc-
tions, the expert may specify the types for chapter headings, subheadings, tables, extracts, and notes,
and must try to give proper directions for uniformity’ in the use of capitals, italic, quotation-marks, etc.
Here his duty ends.
He must not edit.
Copy is invariably given out to piece-compositors in portions known as “takes,” which will vary in quantity from ten to one hundred lines or more.
Short takes are given when work is in haste, and the compositors are required to empty composed
matter on a galley in a prescribed order.
By this
method the galley is quickly filled, and may be as
quickly read and corrected.
Long takes are given
when work is not in haste and when the compositors are of nearly equal ability. The compositor should give close attention to
spoken and written instructions before he begins to set type.
If they are insufficient, he should ask
all the necessary questions.
In no case should he
begin composition until he knows what he must do with every uncertain feature of his copy. 1 It is not wise to order sorts in small quantities by a guess as to their weight. Specify the number wanted of each character.
78
Equal
division
of all
duti
Print is always more readable when each change in its description or its argument is presented in a fresh paragraph.
Dialogue matter should have a
new paragraph for the words of every speaker, but the paragraphing should have been settled by the
author in the copy.
If the compositor thinks that
the matter is too solid, he may show it to the foreman and ask him or whoever is in authority to decide the doubt, but the making of a new para-
graph is not in his province. Three methods of performing routine work ‘on book composition have been practised. An old method required the compositor who held the first
long take to make up in pages the matter he had composed and to pass his incomplete page with
its eopy to the holder of the second long take, who pursued the same routine with the holder of the third take.
In like manner, make-up was passed.
from hand to hand until pages enough had been made up to fill the form.
Every compositor laid
his made-up page upon the stone, and was held responsible for the correctness of his making up and for its proper placing.
The fitting up of the
chase with furniture, the adjustment of margins, and the locking up and proving of the form were done in turn by each compositor. This method equitably divided irksome duties among all the compositors, but it had to be abandoned when an expert workman mated with too many inexperts
had to do more than his fair share of the work.
Working in companionship Another method was that of companionship.
79 By
this method the compositors on the book elected
their own maker-up, who was thereby made an assistant to the general foreman.
He received the
copy entire and gave it out in takes to each compositor.
When there were many compositors, he
attended chiefly to make-up and stone-work; when
there were few, he did composition when not otherwise employed.
He ascertained the daily special
needs of counting-room, press-room, and reading-
room, and arranged his work so that time would not be needlessly lost in any department. He had
the right to order any compositor to do corrections or other work of like nature at his pleasure.
By
English usage, he could fine a compositor for bad
work or for shirking duty.
He kept a schedule in
which he recorded the lines set or the work done each day by each workman.
The value of the head-
and foot-lines and blank lines he had composed was separately computed, and the pay therefor was
‘divided among the compositors in proportion to the number of lines each compositor had set.
The
maker-up received, as had been agreed on, a fixed price per page or per thousand ems, or the same
amount as the compositor who had realized the largest bill.
The intent of the companionship was
to quicken performance, to make men help one another, to prevent the shirking of duty, the hoarding of sorts, and the taking of unfair advantages
of any kind.
80
Make-up now done on time
This method of working in companionship is no longer practisedin the United States.
There are
few competent men who will make up for a com-
panionship, for the pay concededis usually insufficient. There is a general undervaluation of this
labor, not only by compositors, but by publishers,
and even by some master printers. Make-up and stone-work are now performedin all American book-houses by men appointed by the foreman, Their service is paid for “on time,” for make-up by the piece, which may seem the cheaper and quicker method, is too often done wastefully, apart from its imposing needless labor upon other time-hands.
It is seldom well done in all details
unless the time and methods of the maker-up are
entirely under the control of the foreman. Compositors deliver their copy and the matter
as it is set to the maker-up, who has their galleys proved, and then passes the copy and proof to the proof-reader. Illustrations furnished with copy that cannot be proved on the galley’ are put by
him in the proper place as attachments to the proof, and subsequently measured and allowed for at the 1 In some book-houses proofs
fare not taken upon the galley.
correction of outs or doublets
:
of
em trllhoreto beatied and refed, with more delay and increasing liability to new errors in every
alteration.
7
Duties of the maker-up
81
same rate as composed type; but all the other fat matter that has been composed and arranged by the
maker-up, as full-page cuts, head- and foot-lines,
chapter heads and tails, is not reckoned for the benefit of the piece-compositor. The illustrations, often delayed for many days, are seldom furnished until type is ready for make-up. Electrotyping has materially changed the old routine and has put extra labor on the stoneman.
Instead of imposing sixteen pages of octavo in one
chase, the stoneman now has to put one large or four small pages in the chase, and to give more
attention to many small chases than he formerly gave to one chase.
When great nicety of mould-
ing is desired, one page only is put in a chase, and
additional bearers have to be added in every exposed blank. The time now allowed for the proper preparation of the pages is much greater than that
heretofore given to the ordinary letterpress form. The maker-up rearranges the copy in order, and
compares it with the composed type on galley to make sure that there have been no omissions or
transpositions.
A proof of the galley is then taken,
usually on a proof-press of the form shown in the illustration on the next page.
Proof-paper should be thin, sized, smooth, and but lightly dampened.
Ink should be stiff and re-
peatedly rolled on the ink-table, so that it can be
thinly and evenly distributed upon the type, which should be rolled slowly and carefully to produce 6
82
The cylinder press for proving
not been truly planed down, this
‘Another form of proof-press has its proof-paper in an endless roll, and an automatic inkingroller that precedes the movement of theeylinder. These devices materially lessen the work
“of taking proofs.
houses,
In newspaper
that prove many galleys a
Duties of the maker-up a readable proof.
83
An overinked proof prevents
the reader from detecting imperfect letters. When the reader has marked all the errors noted in the proof, has put down his queries, and has
checked in proper places the names of the com-
positors, the proof is returned to the compositors
for correction.
Unless otherwise directed, correc-
tion takes precedence over all other work.
Each
compositor corrects the errors of his own composition, and passes the galley to the compositor next
in order until correction is complete.
A proof for
revise is then taken, and the reviser compares this
revise with the first proof.
If any error marked
has been neglected or wrongly corrected, this error
is again marked on the revise, and is returned to the neglectful compositor, who is required to correct it properly and to furnish a clean proof.
The
galley so corrected is returned by the compositor with the corrected proof to the maker-up. When the matter is a strict reprint that will not receive any change in text, the maker-up proceeds to put it in page form, and the pages so made up are then imposed in a chase.
If, however, a
chase is not to be had, the tied-up pages are laid
on the stone, and a pounded proof is taken with the proof-planer from the pages still in the strings. This is not a procedure to be recommended, for proving in strings tends to displace thin letters at the ends of lines and to work types off their feet, but it is often an unavoidable practice. After ink
84
Duties of the proof-reader
on the proved type has been imperfectly removed with a brush moistened with benzine,! the page is inclosed in a wrapper of stout paper and is put upon a letter-board or bank for future use. For manuseript copy that may receive changes
in the text, another proof should be taken on the galley, and this proof should be sent with the first proof corrected to the proof-reader, who adds his queries, stamps it with the proper date, and forwards it to the author with the copy. The author returns it with his alterations, but he may require another proof containing the correction of these alterations. It is always a great risk to make up before the author has finished corrections, or before the cuts or diagrams are ready. Overrunning of type in made-up pages is slow and expensive.
When the author has nothing more to add, and all the illustrations are in their places, the matter may be made up in pages. tine differs.
At this stage the rou-
In a few houses the second reading
of the printing-house is done by the foundry-reader upon the page proof sent to the author.
This can
be done with safety when it is surely known that 1 The cleaning of type daily deposits of fine dust, and is usually the duty of the office- dries slowly, until it is so firmly boy, who often does this work attached to the metal that it has slightingly. His few passes of to be removed by steam or boilthe brush over the type may ing lye, It is better to prevent elean the face, but they push than to cure this fault. A moist much undissolved ink over the sponge, following the application face on theshoulders and in the of the brush, if properly used, counters of the type. In these will sop out the gummy deposit g left by benzine and foul ink. ink receives places the adherin
Responsibility for alterations
85
nothing more will be added to the proof by the author.
A reading of the page proof by the office
reader before it will be seen by the author gives
the latter more time to consider queries and to _ approve or disapprove proposed suggestions.
In
other houses the final reading or the reading for foundry is given only when the author returns
the proof as entirely corrected.
This is a better
method, but it takes more time and may compel
the resubmission to the author of another proof. All proofs sent to an author should be returned
to the printing-house, even those that have been faithfully corrected and revised and are apparently of no future value, for every proof contains some memoranda of the readers on the margins that
are needed for the perfection of the work. Book-work should receive two readings at the
expense of the office.
The compositor is required
to make his work correct to copy and to maintain
uniformity in style, according to his instructions. After composition has been made correct to copy
and is put into pages in a workmanlike shape, the printing-house has completed the part of its contract that concerns composition.
All changes
subsequently made by author or publisher, whether in the type or in the arrangement of paragraphs
or illustrations, including the time spent in the re-reading by copy of subsequent proofs caused by
the overrunning of matter, are rated as author’s alterations and are at the publisher’s expense.
86
Importance of exact justification JUSTIFICATION
A common fault of the novice at composition is
that of justifying one line tight and leaving an-
other loose.
It is a mistake to assume that a line
loosely justified can be made tight in the form by vigorous locking up. It may be made apparently tight by strong locking up from the foot, but when the form is lifted up from the stone a type may drop out unperceived, or it may be drawn out on press by the suction of the rollers.
This is a seri-
ous fault, for the absence of one character in the print may necessitate the reprinting of the entire
sheet at a great loss.1_
In the book-printing house,
that compositor who does not justify lines firmly is rated as a careless workman, whatever his age or experience.
A line is not satisfactorily justified if it will not
stand in the stick unsupported by the composingrule. If the leads project beyond the type, or if they are flush with the type, the lines so treated cannot be tightened by side-pressure.
They may be
feebly held by the pressure of the foot-stick, but
there is always a liability that a loosely justified line will work off its feet sidewise or produce an 1 Exact justification is needed now more than it wasin earlier days, when types were printed on hand-presses in small forms. Loose justification was then imperfectly corrected by ‘‘scale-
boards,” or dampened slips of spongy cardboard put between the line end and the side-stick. When presswork is done direct from large forms of type, exact justification is obligatory.
Saves time on stone and press imperfect impression.
87
Over-tight justification is a
rare fault, but it is equally mischievous.
Uneven
justification by two compositors on the same page
may prevent the joining of mitred brass rules. Large type in a narrow measure can be justified moderately tight; small type in a narrow measure
must be made full tight.
Practice with different
bodies of type is needed before the required degree
of tightness can be fairly understood. To justify nicely, the compositor should have at
hand enough of thin spaces and hair-spaces, and they should be kept separate in distribution.
It
is not correct practice to put four-to-em and five-
to-em spaces in the same box.
Their distant posi-
tion in the ordinary case is a serious hindrance, for time is needlessly lost in reaching after them. Justification would be improved if cases could be made with boxes for all kinds of spaces clustered
under the compositor’s hand.
The so-called self-
spacing types and spaces on point-sets are other aids to justification. Job-printers have to make use of very thin spaces,
cut from ten-to-pica leads or thin brass or cardboard, for the justification of large types.
When
proper spaces have been selected, a job in a large form can be locked up securely with slight taps of
the shooting-stick.
Forms that have been neatly
justified save great waste of time on the stone; they prevent the wear of type from violent planing
down, and aid the pressman in making ready.
88
Spaces to be used with discretion SPACING
AND
LEADING
Uneven spacing between the words of a line is a
common fault.
In book-work it is required that
the space between the words of a line shall seem uniform in width, but to produce this appearance
of uniformity spaces of different thickness must be selected for use between types of unlikeform.
The
tall d at the end of one word and the tall h at the beginning of the next word call for a thicker space than that selected for the meeting of two round
types like O and € in asimilar position.
The space
after a comma or an abbreviating period may be thinner than that used after an unpoimted word. These may seem trifling niceties, but their neglect
damages the appearance of print. The space most acceptable between entire words in solid and thin-leaded composition is the threeto-em space, and it should be used on all types
with round letters of ordinary height, in which the height of the M is about one half that of the body. If the round letters are higher, occupying a much
larger part of the body, spacing may be wider; if
they are lower, as in the case of a brevier on bourgeois body, spacing may be narrower. Wide-space fat type; thin-space condensed type.
To lessen the unsightliness of too wide spacing between separate words, put a thin space on each side of the hyphen that connects compound words.
Wide and narrow spacing
89
When the em dash is used in the middle of a line,
put a thin space before and after the dash.
This
thin space may be omitted when the dash is preceded by a period or comma, which is too often needlessly ordered in this place. When the words of a line have to be thin-spaced, the em quadrat that divides sentences in that line
should be replaced with an en quadrat or a threeto-em space.
The rules that require uniform spacing between words come in conflict with other rules concerning an arbitrary division of words.
There are words,
like through and George, that are rated as indivisible.
To get in words like these at the end of
a line compels thin spacing; to drive them over to the next makes wide spacing. is objectionable.
Either alternative
To prevent the fault, the para-
graph may be overrun, but this expedient is always impracticable in a narrow measure.
Even spacing
often has to be sacrificed for correct divisions. In double-columned matter, solid and of narrow measure, thin spacing is preferable.
In the broad
measure, especially with double-leaded type, wide
spacing is better, but the en quadrat should be a fair average for all open composition.
Spacing too
wide produces “ pigeonholes” between words, and
they are more unsightly than too thin spacing. Even in leaded work it is better to thin-space
the last line of a paragraph than to make a new line that has two or three characters only.
Very
90
Unwise spacing of single letters
thin spacing is permitted in poetry when it prevents the turn-over of a short syllable. Lines of capital letters should always be leaded and spaced wider than the letters of lower-case. The en quadrat may be used when a few words of capital letters are put in the text, but when a short line of capitals appears in a chapter heading, its
words should be separated by two thick spaces. In a short line of an open title-page, set in two-line letters that nearly fill the body, the words may be properly spaced with the em quadrat.
In electrotype composition a projecting f at the end or a j at the beginning of a line should be followed or preceded with a five-to-em space, to prevent the breaking of its projecting kern. Narrow measures make even spacing difficult,
especially so in the very short lines of text type that are led down by the side of illustrations. The spacing of single letters is a common practice, but it often makes unsightly work. To space words with the em or two-em quadrat is an unpleasant alternative, but over-wide spacing between words
is not so disagreeable as spaced lower-case letters. Side and cut-in notes are not improved byspacing single types; when the author cannot change their wording, the types should pass unspaced.
‘The rule that prohibits the spacing of lower-case letters should not be applied to capitals, for although irregular in form, they are fairly uniform
in width.
Thin spaces judiciously placed between
Leading out needs discretion
91
meeting letters, like I and H, that have upright
stems, and omitted between letters that have inclined stems or are of irregular form, as in A, Y, and L, make the line more pleasing.
In an un-
spaced line, all meeting types with vertical stems seem huddled, while types of angular form seem
awkwardly separated. The fault is easily corrected by thin-spacing the types with upright stems that approach each other too closely.
In all book titles
and running titles, an irregular spacing of lines of
capital letters will conceal the faults of inequality. The author who may be displeased with the gen-
eral effect of a title-page, and who does not know the cause of his dislike, may have his displeasure removed by the irregular spacing of letters that
are too close. The leading of lines calls for as much care as the spacing of words.
Leads or blanks improperly
selected will mar the fairness of any composition. Ordinary descriptive matter calls for no caution other than the repetition of the remark that all the leads used on a book should come from one foundry and be exact as to thickness, so that all pages
shall be of even length, and each line shall truly register its mated line on the back of the page.
Composition that is broken in its text by lines
of poetry, extracts, or tables of figures, or that has many short articles separated by dashes, will require the leads to be differently adjusted at each
break.
In solid composition a white line or less of
92.
Leads before and after dashes
the text is enough to mark the distinction, but
when the text isdouble-leaded and the margins are wide, the blank may be wider.
A page intended
to be open and readable is seriously disfigured by the pinching of space at every break. Prodigality of blanks in solid composition is equally offensive. The rules laid down for even spacing should apply
to leading: for solid work, thin spaces and narrow breaks; for leaded work, wider spacing and blanks. When the last line of a paragraph before a break consists of one or two words only, leads may not
be needed before the break, for the white made by the quadrats that fill this last line may be enough. Tf leads are added there will be more blank at the top than at the bottom of the break, which is not pleasing, for the blanks above and below should seem alike. When paragraphs are separated by dashes, there should be, as a rule, about one lead
less before the dash.
The shoulders of the letters
in the last line usually make a blank equivalent to
the width of one lead.
When the same number of
leads are put on each side, the dash will seem out of centre, with more space above than below. Wide blanks should never be made with leads; a column or page so treated is spongy and is liable to bow or hang in locking up. White lines of large quadrats will make the work more solid.
The ordinary paragraph is usually indicated by an em quadrat at the beginning of the first line, but
Indention and distribution
93
the first line of a chapter, or any line following a short subheading or a running title, or with a full white line over it, needs no indention—not even
when it is without an initial or a two-line letter. The white space above gives enough of relief to arrest attention. Indentions of two or three ems are occasionally
demanded for broad measures and double-leaded matter, but these broad indentions make awkward
gaps when the last line of the preceding paragraph ends with a short syllable of three characters only. For remarks on different forms of indention, see
the chapter on Indention in Correct Composition.
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution, much more difficult to the novice than
composition, must be preceded by dampening the
types to keep them from falling apart.
Not more
than three lines should be taken in the hand at the first attempt, but this number can be increased as
expertness in handling is acquired.
The novice
should not undertake distribution until he thoroughly knows the proper box for every character. A printed diagram of the case should be before him as a guide.
Accuracy is of importance, for type wrongly distributed is sure to be detected in proof. Type for distribution should show whiteness of face before it is placed upon the letter-board. If it is foul, grimy, and sticky, the type should be
94
Proper methods of distribution
immersed in a solution of hot or even boiling lye. Another solvent of dirt is live steam on the galley. For slight foulness use benzine, but the after deposit left by benzine and undissolved ink will call for the application of diluted ammonia or potash.
The novice should distribute carefully and make sure that every type is put in the right box. Speed
can be acquired by practice only.
As every type
wrongly placed makes serious delay in its correction, it is of no advantage to hurry distribution.
Tt will take more time to change one wrong type in the proof than it does to set a dozen letters in the stick. If this wrong letter compels a respacing
of the line in the stick, the time so spent will be as great as that taken in a setting of twenty letters.
When distributable type contains unusual words, the spelling of these words should be understood
before their types are parted. It is better to read the line, and to take up the full word when it ean
Strange type labelled on boxes be done.
95
The eye should follow the type in hand
until it drops in the right box. When distribution can be done before meals, the composition of moist type may be avoided.
The
boxes should not be filled so high that their types can be jostled into near-by boxes.
The case should
not be shaken to make it hold more letter.
The
types can be more easily picked up if allowed to
remain as they fall from the distributer’s hand. A stick or a short galley should be kept on the ledge of the upper case to receive words of italic or
characters that belong to another case, and they
should be put in the proper case at once. In distributing words or lines that are unlike
those of the text type, carefully examine the nick as well as the face of the distrusted letter.
Do not
be deceived by a general appearance of similarity. Do not mix old and worn with new letter, even if
nicks and faces are alike.
Make sure that the type
is returned to the case it came from. White lines, folio lines, and all matter that may
be used again should be put on the standing galley as directed by the foreman.
The correct distribution of Greek, Hebrew, accents, signs, and unusual characters will be greatly aided by printed diagrams of cases, which should be kept exposed for the use of new compositors.
Hach box of strange types should have a print
of its proper character pasted upon its inner side where it can be easily seen.
Why hand-work is needed
HAND-WORK
AND
MACHINE-WORK
Machines for setting type are now common in many printing-houses, but at this date (1903) they have not seriously damaged the business of the expert book-compositor.
In a few houses they have de-
prived men of employment, but in others they have increased the number of compositors by creating work that did not previously exist.
of service is relatively limited.
Yet their field
At this stage of
their development, type-setting machines are not serviceable for any body larger than 12- or smaller than 5-point, and are most used for bodies between 54- and 8-point.
They do no more than set type.
They cannot read proof, correct, make up, impose,
do stone-work, or even set up the more difficult kinds of book composition, which are done now by hand as they have been for more than four hundred years. The need of workmen expert in handcomposition is now as great as ever, and it will be greater in the future. Preliminary practice at case is needed by every operator on machine. One reason for the continuance of hand-work in type-setting is the capricious tastes of authors and publishers. Every large printing-house has to provide many faces of roman type, yet few of the faces so selected can be adapted with economy to machines, Types that are very large or very small
or of any peculiar face must be set by hand.
The
97
Expertness in type-setting
composition of books of music or of algebra, or of plain roman type that has to be interspersed with more than one face of display letter, or with complex tables of names or figures, with cut-in notes, or with other odd arrangements, cannot be done economically by an unintelligent mechanism, however skilfully it may be directed.
Al] eomy siflon
that requires thought, care, and the watehful adaptation of means to ends in every line continues to
be done by hand.
PROPER
METHODS
OF
HAND-WORK
Expertness in composition by hand ix acquired by
preliminary practice at case—by attention to the
trifles that conduce to excellence.
Practice should
begin with correct methods, and the husbanding of endurance is to be considered first.
Ty y.---«t-
ting is not hard labor, but it is tiresome. aid will be fatiguing if false positions ar taken te-Tor
the case and needless motions are tolerated.
Tr<
height of the case, the position of th. tert. the ale tance from the stand, and even the: ineiinacien +2 the stick, affect performance.
Some or +1.
.-.0Le
required, like the twist of the wrist *. :
alt
ing to write, seem irksome im the teow. 0002. 7
after practice these constrained po-i:. .- :r- ie lowed by the least fatigue.
The case should allow a free play :.
the right arm, but not be placed si. é
--22
0 - >
=
ame
98
Expertness in type-setting
bending of the back.
Properly adjusted, the case
may seem too high, but a high case keeps the body
erect, shortens the play of the arms, and prevents the weariness that follows continued stooping. The feet should be so placed that the body can be kept erect and not be swayed too much from
side to side.
The work of reaching for a distant
type should be done largely with the arms.
The
crosspiece at the base of the stand should seldom
be used to rest a tired foot, for the temporary relief
_ It givesis deceptive. The sitting posture, that may _ be used with propriety in distribution, is a real hindrance to quick composition.
The stick in the left hand should be so inclined
that the type put therein will strike the composingrule at a correct angle. When not exactly inclined, false and delaying motions will follow. The stick
should follow the
hand that picks up the type.
Itis hard to train
both arms to work in concert, but when they do performance is always increased. The eye should select the type before it is seized
by the fingers, and this type should be taken, nick
out, on the upper part of the body, so that it will not have to be turned in the fingers. From a strict reprint copy, the spacing between
Experiness in type-setting
99
words should be copied as each word is set.
In
manuscript the full sentence should be read and
thoroughly understood before the first type is seized. Punctuation cannot be properly done when only half or quarter of the sentence is understood.
Neg-
lect to read the complete sentence will compel some waste of time in a more frequent inspection of the copy, and will increase the liability to make outs.
The typographic formulas of the house should be understood before composition.
Many printing-
houses have a printed code for the proper use of capitals, italic, points, and abbreviations, that re-
quires close reading and memorizing. When foot-notes appear in the copy, these notes,
set in small type from another case, should be put next to the line that shows the mark of reference. The maker-up will arrange them in their places. Justifying spaces in the last or quadrat line of a paragraph should always be put before the quadrats.
Each type should be dropped in the stick quietly, without the nervous haste that produces false mo-
tions.
A quick compositor never seems in a hurry ;
he never allows his animation to reach a fidgetiness that deprives him of the perfect control of his hand. False motions come from excessive eagerness to be fast before the hands have been taught to keep
their proper pace. slowly.
The novice should make haste
He should set type quietly and steadily,
refrain from talking, and give entire attention to composition.
Nerves must be husbanded as well
100
Importance of good tools
as muscles.
Any habit that dulls the sensibilities
or disturbs tranquillity is always followed by some mental depression and feebleness in performance. Quick motions can be acquired by working stead-
ily.
To work actively for a few hours and but
languidly for the remainder of the day will not pro-
duce the desired speed.
If a novice finds that he
cannot set more than five hundred ems in an hour without undue exertion and a tendency to false motions, he should not attempt more, but he should not allow himself to do less than five hundred.
If
he works day after day with reasonable earnest-
ness, he will gradually increase performance and
will do more work with less effort.
The error of
many apprentices begins with the unreasonable expectation that they can acquire speed quickly. They try to push execution beyond ability, and in so doing acquire the bad habit of false motions, and become slow compositors for life. When the compositor can control his time, he
should do routine work at set hours, distributing and correcting at the end of the day. A bright and neat-fitting steel composing-rule, a polished stick, and a clean case free from dust are great aids to composition.
Good light is valuable.
Light is not always to be controlled, but the rule,
stick, and case may be. by his tools.
The workman is known
A rusted stick or a short or crooked
rule will diminish the performance of any workman. Expert compositors own their own sticks and rules,
Emptying type from stick, and will use no other.
101
They get used to their size,
weight, and feeling, and say that they can do more work with them than with other sticks and rules apparently as good.
To seize a type readily, that type should be allowed to rest exactly where it falls in the box during the process of distribution.
The case should not
be shaken up, nor should the little mounds formed by distribution be smoothed down.
When types
are shaken up or flattened down in parallel rows, it is difficult to snap them up.
The compositor has
to pry them up, and perhaps to turn them around nick out or head up, before they can be laid in the stick. The fastest compositors, or those who can be
fast when they choose, do not usually set the largest
quantity of type in a week.
In the long race, the
steadier men beat them in performance by their superior persistence.
The worst compositors—and
all who make foul proofs may be so considered—
are usually the greatest talkers at work. All the material needed for the day should be in or near the case before beginning work.
To stop
composition to distribute, or to search for leads, quads, and extra sorts, is always a hindrance.
The emptying of composed type in a stick calls for some sleight of hand, at which the young com-
positor often fails.
His fault comes from gripping
' too tightly the lines between his thumbs and forefingers, and neglecting the pressure of the middle
102
Method of making measures
fingers at the ends of the lines, where pressure is more needed. line only.
He should begin by taking out one
When he takes up two or more lines,
he will soon learn where to apply the pressure and how to balance the type.
As soon as the type is
put upon the galley he should press it up with his
composing-rule, and leave it standing squarely on its feet.
Making up the stick, or adjusting the stick by its slide and screw to the proper width of a given measure, is a work of exactness that cannot be safely intrusted to a young compositor.
When
two or more compositors are employed on the same work, their sticks should be made up uniformly.
A very slight variation of width in the making up
of two or more sticks, followed by other slight variations in justification, will give much trouble
when the matter is put on stone or on press.
Ex-
actness of measure is best secured by the use of a
solid metal gauge, about four picas thick, against which the slide is pushed until it is tight.
When
a solid metal gauge is not to be had, the width of —
the measure can be formed from a predetermined
Reading of type in the stick
103
number of large em quadrats, against which the slide must be set tightly.
A line of the letter m,
frequently used, may not be so accurate, for the
greater the number of pieces, the greater the lia-
bility to inaccuracy from unequal rubbing at the
foundry or from the possible bending or cornerbruising of the types.
To make up measure with
leads and a thin cardboard between the lead and
the slide is another unsafe method for any composition in which more than one stick will be used. Making measure by the gauge of dead matter is
equally objectionable.
A fixed gauge should be
used to test the stick as well as to form the measure. If this gauge shows that the stick is tight at one
end of the slide and loose at the other, it is not
true and should be rejected.
Spacing too tight,
dropping the stick on the floor, making use of the plate of the stick as a turnkey, are some of the careless practices that make sticks untrue.
jeq&e sp pe onpeer of pre biscgice 10 pAbegs cies bLooy wep scdniLe ppre KuOAnbeiqge gomy’
ppe comboarro. «po asupe
ID (ple IjMepLsflow Ja SF Lesqroe of jerpeLa
pesqwus cAbee my gpe erick’ ge ¢pea sbbes. The young compositor should read over every line as soon as he sets it, and at once correct any
detected error.
Before he empties the matter on
the galley he should read it again, looking for outs
104
Recent mannerisms
and doublets.
The time given to correction in the
stick is not time lost.
It is easier to correct there
than on the galley or the stone, and it is worth a
deal of trouble to acquire the reputation of a clean compositor.
The making of pi is frequently unavoidable.
A
standing rule in many printing-houses is that pi
must be distributed on the day it is made.
When
the maker of this pi is unknown, it is customary to divide it equally among all the compositors for immediate distribution.
The operation of this rule
seems harsh, but it is for the common advantage. The small heap of pi that remains undistributed overnight invites more carelessness; it is probable that it will be larger at the end of the next day.
RECENT
MANNERISMS
A new fashion in typography directs that the first line of every paragraph, whether at the beginning, middle, or ending of a chapter, shall begin flush at
the left side of the measure.
The only indication
that the line which is so treated begins a new paragraph is to be found in the blank that may be left in the last line of the preceding paragraph. When that line is full, there is no indication, and
the two intended paragraphs are made one.
For
this reason the suppression of the em quadrat as the mark of paragraph indention is not a safe prac-
tice.
It may be and often is proper enough when
tagged endings to lines
105
there is a full white line over the first line of any
paragraph, but not otherwise.
The em quadrat
has been for years the established mark of paragraph indention, and it can be omitted with safety
only when it is so ordered.
Ragged endings at the right side of all the lines of the text, as is unavoidable in type-writing, is another novelty.
This new mannerism lessens
the labor of spacing, but it makes an unsymmetrical page that is unpleasing to the reader.
is preferred to manuscript because it is symmetrical and orderly as well as more readable.
To
reproduce in print the irregularities of autographie work is an unwise rejection of the uniformity
that is the great merit of letterpress printing. Lines of ragged outline may attract attention to an advertisement or an ephemeral pamphlet, but to the reader this raggedness seems slovenly.
Unleaded and thin-spaced composition is preferred by the disciples of William Morris, but it is not liked by the average reader, who does need a perceptible white blank between words or lines of print. During the fifteenth century, when thin leads and graduated spaces were almost unknown and but little used, the reading world had its surfeit of close-spaced and solid type-setting. ‘“Itis not probable that readers of this century can be educated torelish a practice that then had no excuse but that of unavoidability.” Words can bespaced and lines can be leaded too widely, but a per-
ceptible break of white between words and lines at least as greatas the white between the body-marks or
106
Sold and thin-spaced composition
stems of single letters is needed for easy reading. A solid and very thin-spaced composition may be quite acceptable in the text of typeson 14-point and larger bodies, when these types have been properly printed on damp paper, for under these conditions ordinary eyesight can discern the shape of each character, but it is not acceptable in any body of small type that has been printed on dry and coated paper,where the eye has to guess at the words and doesnot clearly discern the forms of single types.
The dense huddling of lines of capital letters, narrowly spaced and without any leads, and the jam-
ming of text types close against illustrations or up
CAPITAL LETTERS NEEDLESSLY HUDDLED BY THIN SPACING AND OMISSION OF SEPARATING LEADS to large initial letters or surrounding borders, are
equally objectionable.
The relation of letters to
one another should not purposely be made difficult when they can be composed to be read at a glance. Illustrations of all kinds, whether in the form of diagrams, initial letters, head-bands, or borders,
need a decent relief of white to show their value. Ruskin wisely says that ‘the eye is not saddened by quantity of white, but it is saddened and should be offended by quantity of black.”
This remark
ean be properly extended to the mutual interfer-
ence of bold-faced types, or to decorations of any kind when they crowd too close against letters.
Capital letters unwisely spaced
107
Over-wide spacing of single types, of both capitals and lower-case letters, for the purpose of making the running title of a page or every line in a page of display fill the measure, is another eaprice. The advantage to be gained by this explosive treatment
of types is not apparent.
It is never done in the
THEOVER-WIDESPACING OFSINGLETYPES THAT DISLOCATESTHEWORDS
ANDPRODUCESCONFUSION
text of a book in short lines of dialogue matter or in poetry.
It does not make clearer or more sym-
metrical the running title or any subheading.
It
does not add to the comeliness of a modern book, even if it was a style of the seventeenth century. The uncouth letters now provided by type-founders for display sometimes appear in the subheadings of magazines, but the wise publisher forbids
their appearance in a library book.!
The reader
and the student have small reason to complain of any ineffectiveness in the modest types that have been used for years with advantage to make clear the difference between the headings and the subject-matter of a book, and they have good cause to 1 Advertisers are largely re-
attention. This new typographic
sponsible for these letters. They
practice of “getting ahead”
properly represent in type the
all rivals is damaging to the serious book, for it produces the
screaming ‘‘ barker” before a
paltry show, or the “ hustler ” who breaks up an interview and insists on first and immediate
of
impression that there is probably an inferiority in matter that is heralded by needless display.
108
Injudicious use of borders
protest against rude types that deform printing. The title-page and the subheadings of a book may be judiciously decorated by inclosing their words in a rule border or in Illustration of a bor-
der rule that makes unsightly types within. ‘The
value of black lines
as a border for small
type, or under running titles, or between para-
graphs, is not apparent in the composition of
any book of worth or of permanent value.
many panels of brass rule formed of single or parallel hair-lines, but in some instances the rule is of much bolder face than the type within, and more strikingly attracts the notice of the
reader.
It often requires energetic protest from author and publisher, the real sponsors of the book, to prevent a young compositor from adorning its subheadings with the twisted and fantastic black borders that are now in fashion in Germany, or from over-
loading the book with hair-line often
rules
have
that
attached
seraps of decoration.
This
unwise fond-
ness for ornamentation often induces the amateur
to fill the blanks in the last lines of paragraphs or on each side of the running title of a modern
Improper ornamentation
109
book with petty figments of bordering.
There are
books on medieval subjects, and some on modern
subjects, in which decoration of this kind may be a grace, but it should be selected with caution. In the larger part of modern books so treated, this filling
up of all blanks with decoration is a positive fault.
Ornamented pages intended for printing in black ink seldom need a border bolder than the types
within.
It should not be necessary to repeat the
platitude that the book is bought to be read for
the thought of the author and not to see the fancies
REMARKS ON THE
—
ART OF MAKING DISPLAY EXTREMELY —-—- DIFFICULT
AND
EXPENSIVE ———
WITHOUT
— IMPROVEMENT TO ITS CLEARNESS OR BEAUTY, —AND VERY MUCH TO THE DAMAGE OF ITS SALABILITY
of the printer or decorator, but it seems to be needed. A young compositor should always observe this rule of all architects: “You may ornament construction; you must not construct orna-
ment.”
Types that represent words and thought
must have first place; ornamentation of any kind should be subordinate.
110
Simple methods most approved
These mannerisms have been introduced during the last twenty years.
It is not unsafe to hazard
the assertion that before another twenty years has passed they will be out of fashion, and the book
containing them will be in lasting discredit. When a printer is plainly directed to make use of one or more of these mannerisms, he should do
so without question or remark, for it is his plain
duty to do what he is told, and to do it intelligently and helpfully, whether he does or does not like the style; but when he has a free hand and is asked to do the composition of a new book in workmanlike manner, he will make no mistake in adhering to methods of simplicity that have pre-
vailed for centuries.
It will be safer to accept the
leadership of Bodoni and Didot, of Pickering and Whittingham, than that of many recent reformers
of typography.
Pa
WeNRY 0.
MOUOKTON
IV
COMPOSITION OF BOOKS Title-page ... Preface matter... Chapter headings
and
synopsis ... Subheadings ... Extracts ... Notes and illustrations ... Running titles and paging ... Poetry Appendix and index. . . Initials . . . Head-bands, ete.
TITLE-PAGE
OMAN capitals of regular form in uneven lines of open display are preferred for the titlepage by the largest number of publishers,
ES
The lower-case of
roman and italic and the capi-
tals of italic are other tolerated
styles, but title-pages exclusively in any one of these series are notcommon. A
title-page in roman capi-
tals displayed in a plain manner is most satisfactory for the ordinary book, and it is for the plain title ul
112
Copy for a title-page needs study
only that these brief remarks are made.
Properly
selected, their arrangement gives least trouble to the.compositor.
The type of the title should be of the same face as that of the text.
This is easier said than done,
for there are few text types provided with larger
sizes of precisely the same face and fitted for words and lines of different length.
The compositor must
do the best he can with the faces and styles that are avaiable, but he must avoid harsh contrasts. He should understand at the outset that his composition will be most satisfactory when the types
selected show mutual relation.
Even one line of
italic capitals in a composition otherwise of roman capitals only will make discord.
A title-page may
be entirely in capitals or entirely in lower-case (initial letters excepted), either in roman or italic,
but two series can seldom be used together.! The copy for title-page matter should be studied
before the first line is put in type.
The compositor
should predetermine how many lines and how much 1 Exception may be allowed for a word that calls for peculiar emphasis, for honorary titles
in separate lines, and for a line of display with arabic figures.
Small capitals that are almost unreadable may be supplanted
with smal] but more readable lower-case. Real old English black-letter of large size may be selected, in a title-page otherwise of roman capitals only, for
the name of a book that treats of old English literature, but it is not pleasing in an imprint or for any other short line. The uniformity of face that is the great merit of a page of text should be maintained in a page of title. To mix two faces de-
stroys the bookish feature; it de-
grades the title to the level of & newspaper advertisement or a handbill.
UTR a
erent
PSU CHEE
CEE
[teed Da
eT TE
ee
LT
tA CE RD Pe
Tepe et
tage
(Re
eee eR
CTE veleye deine Ue
CT Hae CLT PIPE pene
rom
qeOragberae
aa
Wad
SE ETE pea ea
GING TS
ee eee
Cee Eas Leet
bee LULU
ULE breed
vi
CO
ES
EHC
Hind ae od a
“THE
PROG Le CLE TUE UU UA bed bt
a
et ee
BCU
Te
i
ERR RRL
CUT
TE
Lak
i]
(inn
APeveveNenerOaRHvOPHeHeHeRED
jienereventiat
Cente
|
DU Wert
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EL
HLL
et PLE
Suggestions for sketches of titles.
1H
114
An old method of setting title-pages
blank between lines are really needed.
He should
begin by sketching on a bit of paper the relative
size and length of the proposed lines.
The first
lesson to be learned by him is that the attractiveness of a title-page depends as much on the proper distribution of blank space as on the proper display of important words. Blanks of different widths are needed between
distinct divisions of subject-matter—a broad blank between those that are not closely related, and a narrower one between those that ‘are.
To display
the matter in the manner of a handbill by making frequent catch-lines and putting blanks of the same
width between all the divisions will spoil any title.
The broadest blank in titles without device or illus-
tration should be above the publisher’s imprint. Catch-lines have to be selected for some title-pages, but they should not be too frequent or in too small
type.
When it is possible to do so, all the words
in a title-page should be in types that are as reada-
ble as those of the text.1 An old method of constructing a title-page, not
yet out of fashion (usually done in obedience to order of author), was to plan it with many distinct lines, and to crowd the long name of the book in 1 Large type is not possible for prolix honorary titles, nor for
play. The strong contrast produced by putting a catch-line of
some details added by the pub-
lisher, but it is practicable to make all important words no-
small capitals of nonpareil above or below a large two-line letter, once a grace, is now a real fault.
ticeable. Pettiness should be avoided as much as overbold dis-
more than he does ingenuity.
The reader values readability
Type for main line of display one bold line of condensed type.
115
The short name
had its types spaced out to fill the line, for a full line was rated of first importance.
These meth-
ods did not always give to the title the desired boldness and clearness; in many books they made it feeble and incoherent.
A contrast of the old
with the new method of treating the title is presented on the following pages. The name by which the book will be identified
should be the boldest line, and the words for this line are usually prescribed by the author.
As this
line determines the size of other lines, it should be
the one first set.
Its length or shortness is not of
first importance, as is often supposed, but its bold-
ness is: it should be bold enough to arrest attention at the first glance.
Condensed types have to
be selected for this line when the author insists on
putting many words in one line, but this shape of type should be avoided when it is possible.
Types
slightly compressed are tolerated by the critical,
but not when they are visibly pinched.
At their
best when their letters are not spaced, they are never entirely pleasing either for a scant or a
crowded title.
A two-line type of the standard or
regular width is clearer than a condensed type of greater height, and should be preferred. When the letters for the main line of display are few, they may be in one short line, but when there are too many for one line, and condensed letter is
forbidden, they may be arranged in two lines.
The
A HISTORY OF
CLASSICAL GREEK LITERATURE BY
THE
REV. J. P. MAHAFFY, M.A. KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF THE REDEEMER FELLOW
AND PROP. OF
ANCIENT HISTORY, TRIN. COLL. DUBLIN
HON. FELLOW OF QUEEN'S COLL. OXFORD
AUTHOR OF “SOCIAL LIFE IN GREECE’ ‘PROLEGOMENA TO ANCIENT HISTORY’ ‘GREEK LIFE AND THOUGHT’ ‘RAMBLES AND STUDIES IN GREECE’
“THE GREEK WORLD UNDER ROMAN SWAY’ ETC.
LN
THE FROM
THIRD
TWO
VOLUMES
VoL. II.
Part I.
PROSE
WRITERS
HERODOTUS
EDITION,
TO
REVISED
PLATO
THROUGHOUT
London MACMILLAN AND
NEW
AND YORK
1890
All
rights
reserved
CO.
A
HISTORY
CLASSICAL
OF
GREEK
LITERATURE BY
THE
REV. J. P. MAHAFFY, M.A. Knight of the Order of the Redeemer; Fellow and Professor of Ancient History, Trinity College. Dublin; Honorary
Fellow of Queen’s College,
Oxford;
Author of
** Social Life in Greece,’’ ‘‘ Prolegomena to Ancient History,” ‘*‘Greek Life and Thought,’’ **Rambles and Studies in Greece,” ‘‘ The Greek World under Roman Sway,” etc.
IN
TWO VOLUMES.
THE FROM
VOLUME
II.
PART I.
PROSE WRITERS HERODOTUS
TO
PLATO
THIRD EDITION REVISED THROUGHOUT
LONDON
MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK
1890 All rights reserved
118
Long and short lines of display
two lines so picked out should be of the same face
and nearly, if not exactly, of the same size.
They
should not be huddled: the blank between them should be about as wide as the height of the type
selected!
If these meeting lines are of the same
length, the letters of one line may be thin-spaced to make it a trifle longer, but the spacing should
be slight, so that its increased width will not be at once apparent.? The main line is well placed when it appears as the second or third line on the page. A title with its largest and longest line at the top of the page is always unbalanced and top-heavy.
When copy will allow, the introductory article THE or A may be the first short line. 1This suggestion opposes the practice of some designers who
separate lines of large letters with very thin lanes of white space. This is often done even when there is abundance of unfilled space in other quarters of the page. Letters so treated would be more readable if they
were shortened in height and more blank were put between
lines. The eye has been accustomed to seeing in roman lowercase type decidedly greater relief of white space above and below each line than there is within the letter. This relief of white space is equally needed for capital letters; they need as much space without as within. 2 The first line may be long and the second line short, or vice versa, but it is desirable that
words closely related in sense shall be kept in the same line. It is not always necessary that two meeting lines of display shall be uneven as to length. When the words in the lines are of equalimportance, they should be treated in the same manner, and be spaced or unspaced to have equal distinction, even if they are of the same length. Two contiguous short display lines of equal length are not a fault, but the display will be faulty if one line is purposely made too large and the other too small. The old rule that required a bold full line to be followed by a short inconspicuous line, even when it gave false value to the words of the author, is not observed now by the discreet publisher.
THE
GRAMMAR
THE
OF
GRAMMAR OF
ENGLISH GRAMMARS
ENGLISH GRAMMARS
FIFTY YEARS AMONG AUTHORS,
AMONG AUTHORS, BOOKS
BOOKS AND PUBLISHERS
AND PUBLISHERS
FIFTY YEARS
THE ART OF ILLUSTRATION
THE ART OF
She Art of Illustration
ILLUSTRATION
A
A
SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY
SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY
THROUGH
THROUGH FRANCE
FRANCE
AND
ITALY
CRITICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS
AND ITALY
CRITICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS
ESSAYS
ESSAYS
ONE HUNDRED BOOKS
ONE HUNDRED BOOKS
FAMOUS IN
FAMOUS IN
ENGLISH LITERATURE
ENGLISH LITERATURE
WITH
WITH FACSIMILES OF
Facsimiles of the Citle-pages
THE TITLE-PAGES
Old method.
Modern method.
120
Expression of words offirst importance
It is sometimes difficult to compose in an orderly
manner the words prescribed when the author requires them in one full line.
If the letters for this
line are too few, a type unduly large must be used. If smaller type is selected, the line will be short
and feeble and the letters must be spaced, but spacing to full width of measure will make the line still feebler.
Attaching a large capital of the same face
as an initial letter will make it practically a line of capitals and small capitals (never pleasing in a titlepage), that does not materially increase its boldness. Nor is a large engraved initial of square form helpful; most serviceable at the head of solid text type, it always seems discordant and out of place in the open title-page. If the letters in the line are too many, condensed
type must be selected, but pinched letters make a
discord with those of standard width.
When two
letters only of a type of proper size and shape will not come in, the measure should be widened to take
them in.
If this is not practicable, set the words in
two lines.
When types have been chosen of a size
to give a proper showing to words, irrespective of
the length or shortness of lines, and other details of composition are fairly adjusted, the result will seldom be unsatisfactory.
Old-fashioned rules about
display often have to be put aside.
They should
not be maintained when they produce mean display. It is of first importance that the words in a title be properly presented, even if the old rules are violated.
Not the showing of arbitrary rules.
121
The copy for a title-page may specify for its main line not one, but four or more distinct words, all
of equal importance and all requiring equal prominence.
It may be impossible to give them proper
prominence in one line or even in two lines.
By
old methods words of this description were set in
two lines—the first line in a very large type, and the second in a smaller type, after this fashion : A CRITICAL REVIEW
PAINTERS DESIGNERS ETCHERS AND ENGRAVERS The only excuse for making this needless distine-
tion in the size of type is the unreasonable rule that required two meeting lines to be unequal in
size and in length. The new method of treating
these words for display is simpler, much less trou-
blesome, and more satisfactory to the author. A CRITICAL REVIEW OF
PAINTERS
DESIGNERS
ETCHERS anp ENGRAVERS
122
Hair-spacing of capital letters
This treatment gives equality to all the words, and
the initial letters of each word line vertically, regardless of their irregular endings. All other short lines of a title-page can be cen-
tred by putting equal blanks on each side of every line.
The needed irregularity is produced by dif-
ferent sizes of type that make the lines of unequal length, but there should be some symmetry in the
apparent irregularity; a pencil line drawn diagonally from the end of a short to the end of the longest line should touch or nearly touch the ends
of the intermediate lines. A hair-spacing of one or
more intermediate lines may be needed. When the main line has to be widely spaced, as in a title-page of the Puritan or seventeenth-century style, other lines of display should be wide-
spaced, and broad blanks put between the lines above and below the main line. The space between single types in any line of display should be much
narrower than that of its proximate blanks.
The
wide spacing of single types when there are narrow blanks above and below is unpleasing, for it makes the subject-matter incoherent.
Small capitals that have little interior white space may need hair-spacing to make them more distinct. An old rule required every line in the title to be
spaced when the main line had been spaced.
This
treatment is not always practicable, but it could be observed much oftener than has been done, and
with advantage to many title-pages.
Arabic figures improper with capitals
123
Lines of secondary display should not be frequent,
nor set in types so large as to reduce the importance of the main line and to encroach on the wide blanks that are needed between the regular divisions.
Grouping of details in a synopsis under
the name of the book in readable capitals, and in short lines of a squared form or in a diamond or half-diamond arrangement, is the more approved practice. The attractiveness of a titke-page is largely in the visible coherence of its words.
Wide blanks
that separate divisions not closely related, and narrow blanks that combine those that are related, are
greater aids to a comprehension of subject-matter than many lines of bold type. The names of author, editor or translator, and designer may be in types of graduated size to indicate
the relative value of their contributions, but to preserve irregularity of outline it may be necessary to neglect the nice distinctions intended to be produced by different sizes of type.
A general effect
of irregularity should be maintained even if those distinctions are not at once noticeable and some lines are made a trifle short or long. Arabic figures must be avoided in all lines of capitals.
Figures of old-style face are always mean
mates in the same line with their broad and tall capitals, nor is any figure of modern cut on the en body pleasing in a line of capitals of regular
width.
Roman numerals or spelled-out words are
imperative in lines of capitals for all amounts but
124
Obtrusiveness of the motto
those of dates, yet the date following a publisher’s imprint, always in a separate line, may be in arabic
figures with propriety.
‘When the title-page is crowded with much matter,
the prefixed By before the name of the author may be set in the same line and in the same type. Abbreviations of short honorary titles following the name may appear with that name in the same type and same line, but when there are many honorary titles this prefixed By has to be in a separate line. Honorary titles are not pleasing in small capitals by
the side of the name; they may be spelled out, to appear in a separate line below the name, in small capitals or in two or more lines of small lower-case. Spaces are not needed after the periods in abbreviations like A.B. and LL.D.
Custom requires the
name of the author to be in larger type than that given to his coadjutors, but there may be special
reasons for neglecting this practice. When superior distinction is required for an illustrator, editor, or translator, his name may be larger, or even
appear in small type as the first line of the page. The motto of a title-page always seems in the way.
It must be placed where the author directs,
but if put as is usual in the middle of the page, it may need a hair-line dash above and below to sepa-
rate it from other parts of the title. When the title is crowded, and the author permits, it may be put at the head of the page or on the leaf that precedes or follows the title-page.
One or two
Faults of overcrowded titles
125
lines of a motto may be in small capitals; three or
more lines are better in small lower-case letters. It always appears to better advantage in a purposely narrowed measure, but modern practice does not
inclose it in a border-line.’ Curved lines, ornamental dashes, a sprinkling of odd initials, or decoration of any description,
should never be added to a title without order. The Morris title is made by crowding at the head of the page all its words in a few lines of thin-
spaced and unleaded capital letters.
It is not a
modern but an old method, apparently devised by
an illuminator who wanted nearly all the page for his own handiwork.
When the blank so made is
not filled with decoration, the page is unsightly.
Explanations concerning the publication of the book and specifications about the edition, as of the number of copies printed, are usually put on the
title-page, but these additions always prevent or-
derly arrangement.
A displayed title-page over-
crowded with lines that must be read more slowly
and thoughtfully than lines of the text matter is a 1 Two or more long quotations selected to serve for the motto
should be put on a separate page, and roman lower-case of a small size is usually selected for this purpose.
It isnot necessary that the lines of a motto should be the full width of the measure; it is always more pleasing when its first and last linesare full. This may compel frequent overrun-
ning, but the ungainly appear-
ance of indented and broken lines will be prevented. When two or more distinct quotations appear on the same page, they may be separated by a white line, not by dashes. The reference to the book from which the quotations have been taken should be in a separate line, in smaller type, and not preceded by a dash.
mistake. It should be so composed that the hasty reader can take in its full meaning at a glance.! The title-page of but few lines that presents a ragged and meagre appearance may be improved by inclosing it in a brass-rule border of parallel hair-lines or of one firm line about one point thick. The bold-faced rule with face much thicker than the stem of the largest type in that title is not to be commended, for it makes the words within seem insignificant. The single hair-line border is equally objectionable, for it is feeble and is electrotyped and printed with difficulty. Putting title matter in two or more panels of brass rule may or may not be an improvement; it is always a hazardous experiment that may degrade the title instead of
improving it. The wishes of the publisher should be consulted before this experiment is tried. Some title-pages have their words and phrasing
so arranged that they are difficult to put in type in 1No part of the book is sub- position so ordered the composi-
to more capricious
tor can do no more than follow
specific directions given by the author. Even when it is requested that a new title-page shall be in imitation of a given “model, it is seldom that the words to be used (which may be
too few or too many) can be accommodated to the style of
-
that model. The fantastic composition that may be admired in ‘an old book or in the pamphlets of advertisers always seems out
of place in any book of permanent interest.
Types for the dedication
127
an orderly manner even when they receive the benefit of suggestions from the author and the ad-
vice of experts.
Every attempt at improvement
seems to make them more unpleasing.
To prevent
this disappointment the abandonment of display is advised.
Set the matter in large type (all capitals,
all italic, or all lower-case, as may seem best), in half-diamond indention, after the methods of the
early printers, or as a plain paragraph with hanging indention.
When this can be done without
gross faults of spacing or in the division of words,
the result will seldom be unsatisfactory.! DEDICATION
The dedication is not a necessary part, and is now seldom required.
When used, it is put on a sepa-
rate leaf with a blank verso, and is oftenest set in
small capitals with all its lines centred, as is done in the displayed title-page, with large capitals only
for the name of the person to whom the book is
dedicated.
It is never improved by types of eccen-
tricity. The matter is usually divided into lines of unequal length, as may be directed by the author,
but it is most satisfactory when it does not show a marked irregularity in the length of proximate lines.
The short line of one or two words only,
1 For additional
remarks on the selection of types and the composition of title-pages, see A Treatise on Title-pages, which
also contains many illustrations
of titles set in different faces of type and in the fashions of different periods.
128
When tables can be properly leaded
following or preceding a line the entire width of
the measure, destroys symmetry in composition. A long dedication can be made more readable by
setting it as a letter in italic lower-case.
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
The table of contents, usually on a separate leaf, is
often set in small capitals one or two sizes smaller than the type of the text, with capitals for the first letter of important words, but roman lower-case is
sometimes preferred.
Small capitals of the large
type of a text are not a good choice, for they make the page seem needlessly coarse.
The number of
the chapter, the name of the chapter heading, and
the page figures referred to, appear at their best when they can be putin one line.
This line should
begin with the number of the chapter in roman numerals of small capitals.
The initial letters of
the chapter should be kept in a vertical line. A table of contents needs wide leading to make it readable.
When the subjects provided fill the
page too compactly and leave insufficient blank at its head, the matter should be double- or trebleleaded to occupy two or more pages.
This leading
should not be strictly uniform, for when the words
of a chapter name make two or more lines they © should be kept visibly together, separated by one lead only, even if three leads or white lines are put between the matter provided for different chapters.
- Tables needing orderly arrangement
129
When other parts of the book are wide-leaded, and it is desirable that the contents should occupy two or more pages, the numerals that define chapters may be put in a separate line in the centre of
the measure, and there should be still broader blanks between the names or legends of the chapters.
This treatment should not be attempted in
any book with solid text, for some uniformity of compactness or of openness should be maintained
throughout the fore part of the book.
When the
words of a chapter heading are many and make a
second line, the two lines may be braced and the page number put at the point of the brace, but the
brace selected for this purpose should not be blacker than the type of the text.
The leaders provided by
the type-founders to connect letters with figures
are not so pleasing as periods placed one em apart.
TABLE OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
This table, more irregular in its matter than the
table of contents, usually contains in its first line the legend of the illustration, and near its ending the name of the designer, engraver, or photographer. Under the legend line are often put one or more lines of added explanation, which may be in small type.
When space and matter will permit,
an attempt should be made to keep the names of
the artists in vertical line, so that the casual reader will note the distinction. 9
Not a little ingenuity
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130
Half-title and bastard title
may be required to keep the matter straight. The lines may have to be reset repeatedly before the composition is presentable. PARTS
AND
HALF-TITLES
Each large subdivision of book or part or canto takes a separate leaf in the sumptuous volume, and
its name or number is put in the centre or a little above the centre of an otherwise blank page.
The
back of this page is always blank.
The type that
defines the part need not be large.
Roman nume-
rals are used to specify its number, but to give it a due prominence and equality with the wider and bolder capitals in that line, the thin types for numerals IT and III will need a thin space between them. For the cheap edition a separate leaf for each
part is not often allowed.
The number and name of
the part may be ordered to be put at the head of
its following chapter page, and if that page has a long synopsis, a hair-line dash may be needed under
the line that specifies the part, but the dash should be suppressed when the relative importance of the different headings can be made clear without it. The half-title, which is a repetition of the name of the book, was once put over the first chapter of
every book, but it is rarely used now.1 1 The half-title should not be confounded with the bastard title. The half-title follows the title and begins the first page of
When a
text; the bastard title, usually a single line in capital letters, precedes the full title, and takes a separate leaf with blank verso.
Space needed for chapter headings
131
head-band, an engraved initial, and a long synopsis have to be inserted, the half-title is impracticable.
CHAPTER
HEADINGS
A crowded first page is as unsightly as a crowded title.
If it contains head-band, half-title, number
of chapter, chapter heading, synopsis, subheading, and initial, the first page cannot be composed in orderly manner, with proper subordination of types
to show their distinction. The number of a chapter heading is usually set in capitals of the text type, but the numbers only may be larger.
As the numerals I II III are thin
and relatively insignificant by the side of the letters in the word CHAPTER, that word is often omitted,
and the chapter is defined by numerals only.
The
head-band that surmounts a chapter heading may be sunk two lines, so that its top will register with
the first line of text on the following page, and not with the running title.
If the text is wide-leaded,
about half a page of blank space may be given to the chapter heading; if thin-leaded, one third; if solid and without a head-band, one fourth or one fifth of the page.1
The space allowed for the first
1 The amount of blank often has to be governed by the amount
of matter in the synopsis that may follow, and by the size of
the initial letter, if an initial is used. There should be at least
two and preferably four lines or more of text below the large initial. The synopsis is a disfigurement when it overruns on the next page and prevents needed lines of text on the first page.
132
Types preferred for synopsis
chapter heading may be used for all the following chapter headings, and should be distinctly marked on the gauge of the maker-up.
The type for the words that give name to the
chapter (which should be the same in all the following chapter headings) may be in capitals of the text type, or larger, if its letters will come in one or two lines.
If its words are too many for one line,
do not select black-letter or any form of condensed
type; make two lines of the matter, but shorten the first line and place the overrun words in the centre of the second line.
The words in this first
line need not fill the measure.
To make the first
line full, and to put in the second line one word or
syllable only, will be a great blemish.
When there
is no synopsis, and the name of the chapter will make more than two lines, do not use capitals: small capitals or italic lower-case will be a better choice, and the lines may be arranged in hanging indention or in half-diamond shape.
SYNOPSIS
This abstract of the contents of the chapter is
often set in small capitals of the text type, but in this position the small capitals of a large body show too much space between lines and seem needlessly large and coarse.
Small capitals on a body
two or three sizes smaller than that of the text are a more approved selection, although they are dense
Types for preface and introduction and too often indistinct.
133
A small size of plain
roman lower-case is more acceptable.
It must be
set in small type when it crowds the space needed
for the initial letter and the text type.
Sentences
in a synopsis are often separated by an em dash,
but the period before the dash is not needed ; a thin
space before and after is better. Two or three periods a thick space apart and without any dash make a more pleasing mark of separation.
The synopsis
is usually set in hanging indention, which should not be greater than that of the paragraphs of the
text.
Indentions of three or more ems make the
matter lopsided. The long synopsis, in lower-case italic, with its
clauses separated by semicolons, is sometimes put on a separate leaf with blank verso before the chapter.
PREFACE
AND
INTRODUCTION
The size of type for preface and introduction is
frequently determined by the author.
When the
printer has the right of choice, and space will
allow, the preface may be in large type, or in the type of the text made distinctive by a change in its leading.
A book on a bibliographical subject
may have its preface in italic lower-case, as was once customary.
As the preface often contains
more or less of personal explanation, 1t needs some
distinction of type, which can be varied to suit the . occasion.
When these personal explanations are
134
First part of book needs most care
of minor importance, and the matter for the text has exceeded its intended limit, the preface may be in small type.
A book of many editions may have
as many distinct prefaces, and it is the general
practice to give to each one its beginning on an odd page, even if this treatment makes many blank pages.
A short preface is pleasing when in large
type, but large type is seldom ordered when the matter will make many pages. The long introduction is often set in smaller type and with thinner leads than those for the text, but its type should be of the same face and have similar treatment.
A solid introduction before a leaded
text is unpleasing.
When head-bands have been
selected for the regular chapters, a head-band may
be used for the first page of the preface or introduetion, but it may be narrower than the head-
bands of regular chapters. As the preface and introduction are usually set
after the text has been printed, it is necessary to give them separate paging with numerals of roman lower-case.
The roman numerals need not be
used for any reprint on which presswork begins with the preface.
Careful composition is of importance in the first
part of the book, for a neglect in workmanship is there most noticeable.
The sumptuous book must
have its chapter headings begin on odd pages, but
in a book without pretence to superiority each new chapter may begin on the verso, or left-hand page.
Treatment of subheadings
135
The publisher may not consent to what he calls a needless waste of white paper. In some books the chapters are as brief as they are.in the Bible, under which condition the new chapter must closely follow the previous chapter.
To prevent unsightly
gaps of white space, it is often necessary to overrun many pages previously made up.
Paragraphs must
be made longer or shorter by a wider or narrower spacing of lines, and an unequal amount of blank must be put between the chapters.
Hymn-books
and collections of desultory poems in different measures often require similar treatment.
No fixed
rule can be laid down for the amount of blank between chapters, but it must be large in the sump-
tuous and small in the compact book.! SUBHEADINGS
Subheadings, of the same class, intended to relieve the monotony of plain type, should be in the same face and size of type throughout the book.
For
a subheading of one or two lines only, the small capitals of the text are commonly used.
For sub-
headings of three lines or more, italic lower-case of 1 The rule that requires every
chapter heading to begin on the odd page often meets with unexpected difficulties. The end of a previous chapter may overrun three lines on an odd page, leaving the lower part of that page and the page following en-
tirely blank. The proper treatment of this difficulty will be
considered in a future chapter on making up. The intervention of the author or publisher may be needed to add or cancel matter enough to make a sightly page.
136
Paragraphs numbered or lettered
the text in hanging indention of one em only will be a better choice. The indistinctness of compact small capitals can be made less offensive by hair-
spacing the letters, but this treatment is not reeommended for subheadings of more than one line.
If
the italic of the text is not large enough, use the next larger size.
The subheading in italic is also
used in school-books or any didactic work containing rules or propositions that serve as texts for following remarks.
In school-books these subhead-
ings often appear in light-faced antique or title type, but this overbold display is not to be recommended in the standard book.
The distinction de-
sired for a subheading is secured more effectively by
putting about it a generous relief of white space. In some books long subheadings are set in lowerease type two or three sizes smaller than that of the text.
Small type and abundant white space about
the subheading are enough to arrest the attention of the reader. Paragraphs below the rule or proposition that serves as a text are often numbered or lettered, but the number or letter need not be inclosed in parentheses that lessen its prominence.
Old-style figures
are objectionable, for they are weak and of irregular form.
The number orletter need not be fol-
lowed by a period.
The en quadrat is enough to
show separation, as in the versification of the Bible. Side-headings may be set in small capitals or italic, but they do not need an em dash to follow the
Extracts need variable treatment closing period.
137
For dictionaries, gazetteers, or
work of like character, that contains frequent para-
graphs, the side-heading of title or antique type is preferred.
It is not necessary that the type for
this purpose should be very bold, nor should it have marked eccentricity of shape to annoy the critical reader, but it will present a much neater appear-
ance when it is on line with the type of the text.
Copy is sometimes formally divided into paragraphs and sections, and the signs for these divi-
sions may be ordered instead of spelled-out words. The sign should be separated from its following figure by a three-to-em space.
The abbreviation of
Sec. for Section is not wise.
If space has to be
saved, the sign § is better.
EXTRACTS
Extracts and notes should be leaded when the text
is leaded, but always with a thinner lead for each
decreasing size.
The text that has six-to-pica leads
should have its extracts In type one size smaller with an eight-to-pica lead, and the notes at the
foot of the page should have a ten-to-pica lead. Short extracts and quotations may be run in the text and yet be kept distinct by using the ordinary marks of quotation.
When there are four or more
lines, the quoted matter can be more distinctly
defined by putting the reversed commas at the
beginning of each line, and apostrophes at the end
of the last line, but this old fashion is used now
only when extreme precision is compulsory.
The
approved practice is to set extracts of four or more lines in type of the same face but one size smaller than that of the text. Types two or three sizes smaller are objectionably petty. ‘When the extract is set in a separate paragraph
and in smaller type, it does not need the marks of quotation; the change in size is a sufficient indica-
tion of a change in authorship.
A new method of
indicating extracts indents them one em on each side of every line.
Long extracts that make two
or more pages are frequently an annoyance to the
reader.
When it can be done, the verbose extract
should be remanded to the appendix. Extracts in prose or long quotations of poetry in
smaller type are kept separate from the text by leads placed above and below. If the text is solid, two leads may be enough to mark this separation,
Italic is oceasionally selected for poetry, but not to
advantage. To prevent the overrunning of very long lines of poetry, always a blemish, a smaller size
of type may be selected.
Tf the extract has been ordered in
or in the style of a docum
may
be inclosed in
an illustration as well as an extract.
Another way,
a rule of hair-line face, which
will show that it is
more generally pleasing and not
ublesome, is
to begin the document with a plain two-line letter, which clearly shows that it is not a part of the text.
|
Variable treatment of notes
139
NOTES
Foot-notes usually appear in a type two or three sizes smaller than the type of the text.
Four sizes
smaller, but not less than 6-point, may be a better
choice when notes are prolix as well as profuse. When the note is merely the specification in abbre_ viated words of an authority, it may be set in broad
measure; when it is explanatory and makes many lines, half-measure is better.
The two columns of
this half-measure will be properly separated with an em quadrat of the type of the note.
A brass rule
to séparate the two columns of a half-measure note,
or a broad-measure note from the text above, is seldom used now.
Side-notes in type three sizes smaller than that of the text are usually made up to a measure of
eight nonpareils, but they may be wider for notes
that have many words.
Sometimes specifications
of authority are set in italic lower-case type, but italic is not a wise choice, for its kerned letters are
easily damaged in this exposed position, and the upright arabic figures too often used with it do not accord with inclined letters.
Cut-in notes are in measures of variable widths, and they usually appear in small sizes of plain roman lower-case type.
Light-faced antiques and
condensed letters are common in the texts of schoolbooks, but are not a betterment to a library book.
140
Photo-engraved plates need scrutiny-
A modern fashion for cut-in notes is to begin them
on the first line of the paragraph, but this treatment gives to that paragraph a ragged and un-
sightly outline.
The page will be more comely if
the first line of the cut-in note is opposite the third line of the paragraph.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Engravings on wood have practically disappeared.
Plates of zinc or copper etched by photo-engraving process now contain the illustrations provided for
printing with type.
With the providing of these
illustrations, mostly furnished by the publisher,
the printer has little to do, but to some extent he is made responsible for their proper appearance in print, and it becomes him to examine the plates critically, for the photo-engraver’s proof on coated
paper may be deceptive.1
The plate to be examined
should be proved again on paper that must be used in the proposed book, and this proof will show whether the plate is or is not proper for the paper.
Common faults in process plates are lines broken or thickened at their extremities, shallow etching, and imperfect blocking.
These process plates are
1 Photo-engravings by the so- presswork. Much as it may be called half-tone process should disliked by the critical, a supernever be selected for type-work calendered or a coated paper is that must be printed on paper needed for the full development with a dull or rough surface or ‘of the delicate work of a halfthat has to be dampened before tone plate.
Placing of cuts by maker-up
141
often blocked on wood, but the wood may be soft, warped, too high, too low, out of square, or an insecure support for its plate. These defects must be amended before fair presswork can be done, and the amendments should be made before the plates are sent to the press or to the electrotype foundry. Hard type-metal is better than wood for a base. The cut of irregular shape should be nicked for the admission of type before it is given to the maker-up. Tllustrations (or cuts, as they are oftener called
in the printing-house) that come within the measure
can be placed by the compositor in their proper order on the galley that receives his composed type, but this cannot be done when the cuts are small or of irregular shape, and the types have to be rearranged to conform to their irregularities and kept within the limits of the page.
No one can foresee
where the cuts will have to be placed.
Lines of
type can be divided almost anywhere at the end
of the page, but the cut must be intact.
It is cus-
tomary to set the type of every book to be illus-
trated to the full width of the regular measure, and to have the maker-up put the cut in its proper place after he has divided the type matter in pages. To do this neatly, the type previously set by the
compositor must be overrun and led down in a narrow measure by the side of a small or diagonal cut,
and this overrunning may have to be done repeatedly before the type and cuts are fitted to each
other and to the page.
142
To prevent changes in running titles RUNNING TITLES AND PAGING
Small capitals of the text type, often thin-spaced, with arabic figures in the same line, have been for many years an approved form for the running title, but they are not in high favor now, largely on account of their pettiness.
When the words for the
running title are few and repeat the name of the
book or the heading of the chapter, roman capitals of full size on a body one or two sizes smaller than that of the text are often selected. If it hasmany
words and defines the contents of its page, italie lower-case is to be preferred. A line in italic capitals only is not so well liked. Small capitals of the
text can be used when the type of that text is large, but if the text is small and leaded, its small capitals will need hair-spacing, and its paging figures will
be indistinct. he
pean tter is
large size of roman lower-case letter
proved style. ‘The running ti
1 Phe earliest printed books repeat the number of the proper had no running title or paging chapter at the head of each page,
figures. The first attempt to sup- and this treatment was then sup-
ply this need of the reader was to posed to meet all requirements.
Indention of running titles
143
The running title is in an exposed position where it first shows the wear of the press.
To withstand
this wear, school-books, hymn-books, and all works frequently reprinted from plates often have run-
ning titles in capitals of light-faced antique. A new fashion in running titles is the very wide
spacing of their letters.
This must be done when
it is so ordered, but a spacing of single types with em or two-em quadrats is no grace to leaded and
a real blemish over a text of solid composition. The running title is usually separated from the text below by one line of the quadrats of the text type, but if that text type is of 12-point the blank so made will seem needlessly wide.
A new fashion
separates the running title from its text with two leads only, which may be satisfactory for solid, but is not pleasing for leaded matter.
Lower-case type of small size has been used for running titles, but the general preference is for a
type larger than that of the text.
Sometimes the running title is not centred, but is set flush up to the inner margin of facing pages,
at, the end of the left and at the beginning of the 1The blank space under the
running title seems to invite a
meddling treatment. The hairline cross-rule, sometimes of half the width, but oftener of the full width of the measure, is the favorite, but parallel rules of full width are almost as common. For the page intended to be remarkably spruce, a thick double
rule has been used. The value of these additions to the page is not apparent, for a succession of unmeaning rules soon wearies the reader. For this purpose the hair-lines, as usually made upon single, parallel, and double rules, are annoyances to the elec-
trotyper and pressman, and of small benefit to the reader.
144
Page figures reckoned as of margin
right page. The chapter and the section of the book may be specified in the running title,—the chapter
name on the left and the section on the night page, —each fenced off from the words of the running title with brackets.
This revival of an old fashion
is now a common practice, but it cannot be considered as a grace to any modern page.
The running title that consists of the very long name of the book is sometimes divided so that one
half only of this name will appear on one page and
the other half on the facing page. Nor is this a commendable fashion, for a line of many words can seldom be evenly divided; if it is not so divided, one heading will be longer than the other. The continuous repetition of the name of the book in its running title, when that name is well known to the reader, is a wearisome and needless formality. This title is most useful when it explains or to some extent defines the matter on the page, and this explanation should refer not to the first but to the last paragraph on that page. In pamphlets or books that have no running
title, the paging figure is put in the centre of the head-line, but it need not be inclosed in parenthe-
ses or brackets, nor have attached colons, dashes, or any other attempt at finish. If the first line of type contains nothing but the paging figure, this first
line and the blank below it must be reckoned in
the imposition of the form on the stone as a part
of the head margin of the page.
If these practical
Page figures needed by the folder
145
blanks are reckoned as a part of the page of type,
the margin at the head will seem much too large in print, and the page so treated will have an unworkmanlike appearance.
Old-style figures are disliked for paging.
The
irregularity of petty types like 101 on one page and 396 on another is offensive to every reader who
respects symmetry and uniformity.
Some type-
founders have remodelled these figures and made
them uniform in height and line. It is the rule now that figures for paging should not be smaller or less distinct than the figures used in the text. They should be of readable size, even if it 1s necessary to justify in the line figures of a larger body. Paging figures at the head of a full-page cut are forbidden by artists and editors as derogatory to
its intended effect.
It is, however, necessary that
this page have its proper paging figure to prevent 1One of the novelties of reformed typography is the omission of all paging figures, both at the head and at the foot of the page. This omission gives needless trouble to the folder as well as tothe reader. Paging figures are guide-posts that prevent the folder and binder from making crooked folding and irregular margins. Paging at the foot of the page is a common, and in many instances an unavoidable, practice. In this position the figures may be of small size, but they should be of a face that will enable the gatherer of the sec10
tions to distinguish them from the figures of the regular signature. The proper page figures should be put at the foot of every page that has a lowered chapter heading or acutat the head of the page. It is a mistake to assume that the early makers of books did not number or letter the leaves of their books to show their regular sequence. William Blades, a most diligent searcher, has shown that the leaves were numbered or lettered at the foot and that their marks were trimmed off after all the leaves had been gathered and sewed.
146
Paging of preface and advertisements
a possible mistake by stoneman, proof-reader, or pressman.
The maker-up puts it in the foot-line,
and there it remains until ready for press, when it is withdrawn by the stoneman.
If the page is
to be electrotyped, the paging figure remains, but the proof-reader marks it to be cut off the plate by
the electrotype finisher.
He scratches or engraves
the proper page figure on the plate so that it will not appear in print, yet will serve as a guide to the
pressman.
This precaution will prevent delay and
annoying blunders in laying plates. As a rule, paging with arabic figures begins with the text of the book.
The matter before the
text (as the title, preface, introduction, etc., which
are printed last of all) is paged with roman lowercase numerals.
This paging is supposed to begin.
with the bastard title or the first printed page of
the book; but neither on that nor on any other very open page are these roman numerals printed, yet
they are always reckoned in the table of contents as if they had been paged. Appendix, index, and all additions to the text
take arabic figures for paging, but publishers’ advertisements at the end of the book should receive their special paging in a figure of different face. Maps, portraits, and illustrations made on separate leaves by copperplate or lithographic process for insertion in the book never receive printed paging,
although they may be reckoned as pages in the table of contents or the index.
New methods for setting index
APPENDIX
AND
147
INDEX
The appendix of letters, extracts, documents, or
tables that are too long for the text is usually in type one or two sizes smaller than that of the text. It may be set close and solid when compactness is
desired, but its subheadings should not be too compact.
They should have around them enough of
white space to invite the reader’s attention. The index breaks the rule of strict uniformity of treatment, for it is set solid in small type, even when
every other part is leaded.
Two columns of 6-point
type are common for the duodecimo, and three or more of 8-point for a large octavo or quarto.
As
its merit is largely in compactness, some abbrevia-
tions that are improper in the text are permissible in the index, but the full names of persons should be spelled out, wherever it is possible, to prevent
a misleading direction. The hanging indention of one en is enough for an index in two or three columns. no rule between the columns.
There need be
In the copious index,
the first word of every reference, or the two or three
words that follow, may be set in the slightly bolder type of a light-faced antique, but the body of the reference should be in plain roman lower-case.
The
old method of making a separate line for each subdivision of that reference, and of connecting it by
leaders to figures at the end of the line, is obsolete.
148
Turned-over words in poetry
References in an index to different volumes are often put in roman numerals of capitals, but they
are large, wasteful of space, and not the clearest guides to the searcher.
For this purpose arabic
figures of title type or light-faced antique should be preferred.
The period at the end of each subdi-
vision of the general reference is not needed; the
semicolon is a better mark of separation.
Commas
before page figures should not be omitted.
Cross-
references and note-references should be in italic.
POETRY
A three-to-em space is wide enough for the proper separation of words of poetry in solid or singleleaded composition.
The en quadrat may be used
for double- or treble-leaded matter, but it is not an improvement, and spaces of greater width are a positive blemish.
To avoid the turning over of a
long line, very thin spaces have to be used occa-
sionally, even when they mar the general uniformity of spacing in the page, for the turned-over
line of one syllable, often unavoidable, is a greater misfortune than too thin spacing.
When it is
practicable, the word or syllable turned over may be put at the end of the preceding line or following line after a bracket.
This may be done when
the matter has to be kept on one page or in a speci-
fied number of pages, but it is not to be advised for open composition in a generously planned book.
Page figures not to be indented
149
The word turned in a separate line should be so deeply indented that it cannot be mistaken by the negligent reader for a new line.
A modern practice
permits this turned-over line to be set flush with
its preceding line, but it does not meet with general approval.
Lines from which words are turned over
should never be spaced out to full measure.
The variable indention of different lines is usually determined by the author.
When his intent is not
clearly expressed, give a similar indention to the lines that rime.
Sonnets are sometimes indented
artificially in the copy without regard to their rime. Odes are another form of verse not to be controlled
by arbitrary rules, and they must be set with the irregular indention directed by the author. Indention should be so graduated that there will
seem to be an equal amount of blank on each side of the page.
In making up pages of short poems
in different metres, the indention may have to be
changed for each poem, so that the entire body of verse on that page, and not one or two stanzas only,
shall be fairly centred.
The different measures on
different pages of the same book of poems cannot be indented by any inflexible rule. The running title is the one line that can never
be changed with safety.
Never move it or the
paging figure at the end of the line either to the
right: or the left to make the body of an irregularly indented mass of poetry seem in the centre of the
page.
The paging figures are often the only safe
150
Capital letters to be kept in line
guide the pressman has in making register when he prints the sheet on the reverse side.
If paging
figures are put out of place it is probable that the
pages will be badly registered, and that the incautious folder of the printed sheet will so fold it as
to make uneven margins.
| Single quotations are a new fashion for poetry,
but they are feeble; they make unsightly gaps of white, and should be used only in strict reprints or
when especially ordered.
It is the more acceptable
practice in poetry, as in prose, to make use of the
single quotation-mark for the quote within a quote. ‘‘Curse on him!” quoth false Sextus ; “¢ Will not the villain drown ? But for this stay, ere close of day We should have sacked the town.”
‘‘ Heaven help him,” quoth Lars Porsena, “And bring him safe to shore; For such a gallant feat of arms Was never seen before.”
In all stanzas put the quotation-marks in the space made by indention, so that the first letters of each verse shall line vertically as they would line if the quotes were not used.
Do not allow the quotation-
marks to make irregular the vertical lining of capitals.
The quote-marks are not integral parts of
the sentence, and when they are treated as if they were, the intent of riming indention is obscured. The neat making up of pages of poetry is always
Imitral letters should fit space
151
difficult when the stanzas are unequal.
Division
of a stanza between its rimed lines, or after its first line, or before the last line, are faults to be avoided by overrunning and by increasing or de-
creasing the blanks in previous pages.
These are
troublesome expedients, but they cannot be evaded. Fixed rules for preventing these irregularities are
entirely impracticable.
The compositor should
study the make-up of poems in good editions of standard authors.
An examination of the author-
ized edition of a hymn-book will give useful suggestions. INITIAL
LETTERS
Large initial letters at the beginning of chapters
or important divisions of a book are old and useful devices for adding to the attractiveness of print. They should be used oftener.
For the ordinary
book the plain two-line initial of standard width is in most favor. Its form should be that of the
type of the text, but perfect harmony is not always attainable, and the compositor often has to be con-
tent with one that is not an exact mate. An initial letter that spans two lines of solid composition is
to be had of type-founders, but it may be difficult to find one that will close the greater vacancy made by leaded lines. Yet it is important that it should
fairly fill this vacancy.
To be a real improvement
to the page, the top of a two-line initial should line with the top of the types in its following first line
152
Capital letters follow an imtial
of text, and the foot of that initial should also exactly line with the foot of the second line of text.
An initial that does not neatly fill the gap
made by lines of type is not a merit but a blemish. Pes INITIAL is on HEN NOT ON LINE an line at top and foot, unsightly gap is left and fairly fills the vacant at the top and above the space. third line. This gap over the third line of text is often caused
by unwisely selecting the broad-shouldered capital of a very large type.
This fault can be prevented
by cutting off this shoulder when it has to be used as a two-line initial. When the text type is small, a plain initial that
spans three lines of text may be selected to advan-
tage, but this selection is made troublesome by the steadily increasing width of large types, and especially of types like A, L, Y, ete., with strokes that do not fill the body, and that do make ungainly patches of white.
To lessen this blemish in type a moder-
ately condensed letter may be selected, but an extracondensed initial is never a betterment.
The types that immediately follow a large initial may be small capitals or full capitals.
Small capi-
tals should be preferred when they make perfect lining. Full capitals of a large text-type after a large initial are not always pleasing, for they sug-
gest newspaper advertisement display, and in a narrow measure may compel hair-spacing.
High initials
Medieval initials
1538
If the first word or first line following an initial
is ordered in italic, the rule of exact mating may require the special engraving of an italic initial.
A
roman initial before italic letters is not pleasing.
Tue high initial, that lines at the foot and pro-
jects upward as here represented, was frequently used in poetry and open composition by printers of the eighteenth century.
It is not suitable for
compact composition, but it can be selected with
advantage for some forms of open catalogue matter, or for par agraphs divided by lines of quadrats.
(# 14-) EDIEVAL initial letters of uncial |
form, that have curved strokes and
claw-like terminations, were common in early books with texts in
roman character.
Black-letter ini-
tials were not always used with black-letter texts, for the curved lines of uncial capitals seemed better adapted for the decorative work about the initial. They are preferred now in the reprints of old books,
and are frequently. used in England and Germany, in their smaller sizes, as occasional capitals for the
text of devotional and ecclesiastical books.
GACLEGSIASGIC LEMcER MONASGIC MY PE For ordinary books the engraved initial should be on a square or right-angled body. When it has
154
Ragged and pierced initials
straggling lines of decoration that project in the margin or toward the chapter head, this irregu5) larity is never rated as a fault, but
D>
it is distinctly unpleasing when these lines project at the right or at the foot, and give ragged end@ ings to lines of type.
The beauty of the init does not fit when it dis-
torts the lines out of their proper places, as is shown by the side of this initial R.
The last novelty in designed initials is an upright parallelo-
gram, the upper part containing the letter, and the lower part the decoration.
When the initial is so drawn, the lines of the types of the text can be kept trim and square, and the
| foot it should
SAGoK have true alignment with its
CPW. corresponding lines of the text.
It is an acceptable form for general service, but repetition makes it unpleasingly monotonous.
Fac initials
Floreated initials
155
xoR ie
HE fac initial, the typographic sub-
iF Tt:
Pierced initial, may be used now
} rae
stitute for the eighteenth -century
ie Rad“ £ with propriety in imitated reprints
Ge
ohexf-ta3f of the books of that period, but it
is whimsically out of date in any modern book. A pierced initial made up of small flowers of recent
design is no better than the old fae, for it always has a mechanical appearance, even when it has been most skilfully composed. HER
SN initial letter inserted in a hollow
square made from four corner flowers
that fill a full circle may be quite as IGS fA
objectionable as the pierced initial.
“48 The connected lines easily made by the expert designer are rarely produced by the combination of movable types. \peIC.oHE
PROFUSELY
ORNAMENTED
INITIAL
of
bo AaSZ black-letter with interlacings of flowers
Me (1.2) or vines, or with long, straggling stream-
At \ jp 4, ers of tracery, once in high favor, is now —<”
deservedly neglected.
Hy
(2)
wanehey
BIA
of display where its streamers may stray
S into a blank margin, but it is entirely
unfit for any kind of square-set compo-
sition. =>
It had, and may
.*, have now, some fitness for the open com4 \ position of poetry or in a very open piece
To the critical reader its riotous
ormality of symmetrical lines of type.
156
Initials often made too dense
|YPE-FOUNDERS'specimen-books have engraved initials of merit, but in selecting a series for gen-
eral use the closeness or openness of the engraving in that series >}
must be considered.
The initial
should be adapted to the type with which it will be printed.
A text in 6- or 8-point type may be graced
by an initial of good design that shows fine and close engraving, but it may be disappointing if the letter has not been made to be printed in red ink. TEXT in 12- 14- or 18point
needs
an initial
of bold and firm lines,
with broad
tween
the
engraving lected
spaces be-
lines.
of
initial
the
The
se-
should
| mate with the type of the text in its color and
and gray when d be black and ith ablack backsr may be used small or large type,
letter is not at all pleasing bythe side of large type.
Initials within broad borders A2NE
Y'
LARGE
157
INITIAL with
<
open decoration can be se-
—~
lected with good effect for a
Al Pe) text in 10-point or of larger Ad
Fx body, but it will be made
‘/\)}
:
A) more effective if the white within the letter is made red
ZA, by the use of a specially en-
graved O to cover the naked white. Some of its
merit will disappear if this decorative letter is much
reduced 1in size and used with large type. \ZNE LARGE DECORATED INITIAL is enough
ry) » for the gracing of a page.
Two or more
ys
small initials may appear with propriety
-J%
on the same page (as must be done in
the Bible, hymn-books, and ecclesiastic manuals),
nor Is there any valid objection to small initialsin a text under a large initial, but the selection of
two or more large decorated initials of the same size and style for any open composition, as in a title-page, is a mistake. mg
They nullify one another.
LARGE ORNAMENTAL INITIAL can seldom
be used with good effect within a broad
floreated border. This method of treat# ing a title-page that seems bleak may
present itself to the compositor as a good filler of vacant space, but it will rarely prove satisfactory.
The designer may do so with propriety when he connects it to the border or gives it a similar orna-
mentation, but the compositor who has to make
158
Plainness needed in the letter
selection from a type-founder’s specimen-book will seldom find an initial that suits the border. When it does not suit, the initial should be omitted.
Or-
nament is the wine and spice of typography, and must be used with discretion. Good arrangements of composition are often spoiled by the too lavish
sprinkling of initial letters and ornamentation of
ans nature that make the text insignificant.
E fault of many initials is in what artists call their niggling,in
overworking them with too many dense lines that put them in un-
yj] pleasing contrast to the clearness .
and openness of text type.
The
size of the initial should be selected with reference to the size of the page: for 24mo and 18mo it may
be small; for 8vo or 4to it must be large. Initials that are petty always give a petty appearance to the page.
Plantin had for his books in folio some
that were nearly three inches square. A smallinitial may be selected with pleasing effect for lines under subheadings, but the
ini
for the opening
of a chapter or for any important division should be large and rememberable. If the initial letter has been eut to show
white, the decorative lines
about it should give the color effect of pale gray or of full black.
If the gray so produced is too pale,
the white letter can bemade red by special engraving.
Distinetiveness of the letter always should
be considered when black ink only can be used.
Head-bands and tail-pieces
159 .
SPOR general adaptability the odd § initials
designed
by
William
f] Morris for his Kelmscott books, and reproduced by the American
y) type-founders, will be found satZ
isfactory, even if they do seem
coarse as well as quaint.
They deserve study for
their intelligent contrasts of black, gray, and white
eolor. <A black letter is usually ringed with a thin band of white, and its rude lines of decoration are made by white lines on black, that produce the gray effect.
The white
initial letter in outline only is surrounded by decorative
lines, that
give the effect of dark-gray color. The letter always has proper prominence, and the decoration is kept subservient. In the specimen-books of type-founders are a
few forms of small ornamented capital letters that may be used to advantage as small initials, but
those that are too profusely ornamented or grotesquely obscure should be avoided.
HEAD-BANDS
AND
TAIL-PIECES
After useless attempts at the reproduction in two
or more colors of the elaborate decoration of the fifteenth-century illuminators, the early printers of books confined their attempts at decoration to
designs that could be printed in black only.
le
The
7 160
Thin head-bands between chapters
broad border and a centre-band between columns had to be abandoned, for they wasted paper and helped to make the book of high price.
Some new
form had to be devised, for the method of beginning achapter at the head of a fresh page was then almost unknown and seldom practised.
Obeying
the old practice, each printed chapter closely followed its predecessor, and the two meeting chapters were separated by a big initial or a line of large type as the first line of the new chapter. This did not seem to be enough. Then came a simpler fashion of a plain or decorated band between the chapters as the proper mark of separation.
When pages were small and the chapters were not
too short, each chapter was placed at the head of a new page under a broad blank.
This treatment
left the head of the page disagreeably bleak.
To
fill up the blank space, a head-band of brass rule
or of type border was inserted.
Sometimes the
head-band was designed by an expert who mated
it in style with the following initial letter.
It also
became necessary to fill the vacant space left at
Tail-pieces of triangular form
161
the end of the chapter, which might be one half or two thirds blank. was devised.
For this purpose the tail-piece
Conforming to the old fashion of
setting the last paragraph of a chapter in funnel
shape, the tail-piece was made-in the form of a triangle, with its broad side nearest the type-work.
SFE
LFS
mage e eEE This method of decorating the book, introduced in the sixteenth century, has never gone out of fashion, although it is seldom used now for books of serious subject-matter. When properly selected, the head-band and its mated initial letter and tailpiece are welcomed reliefs to the dulness of text type. They clearly mark important divisions and fill space that might be unpleasingly vacant.
There is no rule that arbitrarily prescribes the
shapes, sizes, or styles of these decorations. The head-band may be a pictorial illustration that fills aT
162
Head-bands should be full width
TM
one third or sometimes one half of the page, but when it is very large the type-work below must be correspondingly reduced in size,
The form now in
fashion is an oblong strip of decorative lines that varies in height from a quarter of an inch to two inches, but there is a general agreement among designers that it must be the exact width of the page of type. When narrower or broader, it does not
seem an integral part of the book; it does seem a
bit of added and superfluous patchwork.
It usually
has square endings, but the ends may be rounded with propriety; or it may have a rounded projection at the top in the centre, for the presenta-
tion of a portrait, sketch, or medallion.
It should
SD) Re Ne WD Syey| TOON Vy ye SSN (ie ~ee)
be flat or nearly so at the base, and should not be connected with the initial letter, nor should it have
projecting lines that droop to interfere with the type below and make insignificant the type-work
|
Density and openness to be considered
163
of the chapter heading. Straggling vines or lines of tracery may project from an initial letter into the margin, but not from the head-band. The sumptuous book always has its head-bands, initials, and tail-pieces designed by the same artist, so that all shall show a general similarity of treatment and be in agreement with the subject-matter. Properly treated, they are a grace, but when headbands have been selected from those that have been made at different times by designers of unequal merit, of different sizes and in various styles of engraving, they are positive blemishes.
The beauty
of the proposed book depends upon harmony in decoration as much as on uniformity in type. Grayness or blackness and density or openness of decoration are features to be pondered.
Head-
bands and initials to be used with the types of 12-point or larger bodies should show some correspondence in color with the types, in the closeness and fineness or in the openness and firmness of their engraved lines. ‘A text type in bold-face 1The printer who is asked to duced at small cost by the photoprovide a series of decorations engraving process. Ifthe printer for a proposed book should have intends to make use of these de-
its designs made by an artist
signs for that book only, he can
and eannot be done properly by
in the decoration; butif he proposes to use them afterward for
who is qualified as a decorator, for decoration is an art byitself
have emblematic devices appropriate to the book incor
any one, however high bis merit as an artist, who has not studied other books, he must exelude all decoration asan independentart. emblems of special significance Decoration drawn with pen and and instruct the artist to make black ink on paper can be repro- the designs generally applicable.
164
Head-bands should mate with types
may have decoration in nearly solid black, with touches of white-line ornamentation only; but if
the text is to be in 6- or 8-point type of roman face,
a closer style of engraving that matches the general effect of gray color in the type will be more pleasing.
Sharp or dense lines in a head-band over types that are relatively coarse or open seem badly selected.
When lines too coarse are put by the side of delicate types, the effect produced is also unpleasing.’ For a book of many chapters the engraved head-
bands of type-founders are seldom suitable, for they may be found too short or too long for the
intended measure, too dense or too coarse, or improper mates for the initial letters that may have
been previously chosen,
Theyare more serviceable
as marks of divisionin pamphlets. that do not require a large number of similar size and design. ‘It is customary for artists to make designs for decoration on
ment maybe foreseen and prevented by examining the design
a large scale, but their largeness ‘redueing-glass. ‘The may be deceptive. Whatisclear sketch on a small scale may be and entirely satisfactory in the enlarged with some loss of delidrawing may be petty, foggy, cacy, but with noloss of value, and disappointing when ithas but the sketch on a large scale
been reduced by the photo-en- with dense lines will be monot-
graver to the size that is needed for printing.
‘This disappoint-
onously gray when reduced, and may make an unprintable plate.
Borders of old fashion to be avoided
165
Head-bands made from combinations of flowers or small borders are vain substitutes for special engraving.
Their ineffectiveness as decoration is
apparent in the facs made by French and English printers of the eighteenth century. Made-up headbands are rejected by all discreet publishers, but
there are compositors who still take delight in making them from little bits of border. The time spent in their composition is not justified by the result, for the head-band so produced is always labored, mechanical, and unsatisfactory. A clever
designer can produce in an hour a pen sketch of more pleasing decoration than can be made up by
a compositor from bits of border in a day. Parallel rules, or sometimes thick double rules, have been selected as appropriate head-bands for
the chapter heading of a new page, but a feeble
rule is petty in that prominent position, nor is it pleasing when it divides two short chapters on the same page. The blank made by lines of quadrats is more generally acceptable. Thin strips of border on 6- to 18-point body can be used with better effect, but the border selected should fill or nearly fill the body, and should have no corner flower. For poetry and very open composition a border of light and open lines should be selected; for solid or singleleaded composition a border of strong contrasts of black and white should be preferred.
Carefully
avoid the selection of the overworked typographic
borders of the eighteenth century, for the reading
OU MU mmUmOET SRASRAD AAS LAS 9 °,
(e, eF® e7®, e7® i CZA ZA(OM LOMC DPSZR oo Ch < (OPMEZ2LOMEZA ©
6
aS)
Se
©
é
(ODS fe BNO
Books not to be treated as jobs
167
world has had enough of the feeble gray effects visible in these old-time typographic decorations.
The borders now provided by type-founders are not yet hackneyed; they have more grace, and show
a proper contrast of light and shade.
Borders in
the so-called Elzevir style, or in the Byzantine or Turkish style, of strong black and white, entirely free from dense lines and overworked gray shad. ing, will be found useful material for typographic
head-bands for books that do not warrant the expense of special engraving. most satisfactory.
The larger pieces are
They are not improved, but are
really damaged, when surrounded on all sides, as is often done, with a narrower and lace-like border. The typography of a book should show a
agreement with its subject-matter.
visible
If addressed
to the thinking and reasoning faculties of a mature reader, as is the case in treatises on law, theology, .
or science, it needs no bold type and no decoration ; but if it has been prepared for the study of young students, the severity of a too plain style may be
modified.
Its subheadings of prominence or its
rules or propositions may be set in a bolder type,
and two-line initials or other trivial changes that
will make the text more comprehensible may be added.
Yet it does not need decoration.
Bold dis-
play, eccentric lettering, and fanciful arrangements
are attractive in certain kinds of job-work, but
they are out of order in any book intended for
168
Profuse decoration of great cost
a permanent place on the library shelf. It is the thought of the author, and not any grace of the decorator, that is most prized by the reader who is also a student. It follows that the type-work of a book should be kept in strict subordination to the main intent of the author. In the ordinary book, avoid decoration and odd types that do not make the subject-matter clearer. The great masterpieces of printing are the simplest. Plain types correctly composed and neatly spaced, with strict attention to petty details, clearly printed in strong black ink on unobtrusive paper with appropriate margins, have charm that is recognized by an inexpert. He may not know why they are more restful and attractive than the profusely deeorated book, but he will see that the book so treated does show marked superiority in its workmanship. Yet books with decoration are needed. Those
that are classified under the name of light reading, not intended for study, but for
amusement or in-
formation, may receive ornament inmany forms,
from occasional lines in red
ink or border lines of
brass rule to elaborately«engravedhead-bands,ini-
tials, and tail-pieces, broadborderings offlowers or
rule, explanatory illustrations,
or a text letter of some eccentric sign.
or
These are some of many methods of making
a book attractive, but most of them call for an
amount of skill, patience, and expense that seems
out of proper proportion to the result attained.
Novelties in type a perilous experiment
169
An amateur soon finds that profuse ornamentation
which must be treated in painstaking manner by every contributor from the designer to the bookbinder is too expensive, and quite prohibitory.
often has to be abandoned.
It
Yet he hopes to get
the desired result by the selection of eccentric type for the text, which seems to be the cheapest of all his attempts at improvement.
On the contrary, it
may be the most hazardous.! In the narrow compass prescribed for this work it is impossible to describe with clearness the typographic details that will be appropriate for every variety of book.
It should be enough to offer this
suggestion: before undertaking the composition of 1Ornamentation is not to be undervalued, but he who undertakes it should be sure that it is ornament and not pure meddlesomeness. <A page of print, like an engraving or a picture, can be spoiled by fussy additions that divert the attention from the main subject. The common fault of the amateur is the filling up of blank space with needless decoration. The running title of the book, when not spaced out to the extreme width of the measure, is filled with bits of border that make it and its paging figure insignificant, or it is fenced off from the text below with rules that annoy and do not help the reader, for the rule is more prominent than the type of the text. The last line in every paragrapb may be filled
with bits of incongruous borders.
Even the title-page of the book may be filled with flourishes, or divided into panels with borders of brass rule. Ornament of this description,often made still more conspicuous with many colors, is sometimes demanded by the publishers of advertising pamphlets and ephemeral books, in the belief that this treatment will make the book attractive and help speedy sale. When the decorations of type-founders fail to meet the need, recourse is often had to the pen drawings of amateur designers, and it is largely from examples set by
men who do not see the full scope of the work and do not appreciate the need of general uniformity that the compositor receives bad lessons in decoration.
170
= Over-decoration a common fault
any new book of merit, the typography of good editions of similar nature should be studied, and their good features should be imitated wherever imitation promises to be of service.
The design-
ing of entirely new styles should be discouraged. It may be assumed by the novice that it will be safer to copy the best features of books of high
merit than to attempt the invention of new forms. Over-decoration is a common fault.
In no case
should much ornament be added, unless especially ordered and unless it is certain that the type, paper, and presswork of the book to be made will be of
the best.
Even when ornament is ordered, there
should be a leaning toward simplicity. ateness should be considered.
Appropri-
Eccentricities that
are pleasing in one book may be positively tawdry in another.
The young compositor is especially
warned against the hackneyed decorations of the printers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centu-
ries.
They may be used occasionally with advan-
tage when the old designs have been redrawn and recut; they will seldom prove of real value if not
mated with text types of their own period.
SZ
OH PGR
CIX%
Ad \S9=
DIFFICULT COMPOSITION Algebra .. Tables and table-work . . Music . . Genealogies
ALGEBRA
‘HEN composed from types cast. upon irregular and unmatable bodies, algebra is emphatically
a difficult form of composition, for it requires much time-wasting justification with thin leads =}
or pieces of thick paper.
It
can be composed with more facility if the needed
types and rules have been made on the point system, but under the most favorable conditions al-
gebra will be troublesome.
It has rules of its own
for spacing and division that must be
and the compositor needs some skill im
i
observed,
172
Signs used in algebra
combining in a workmanlike manner, yet by new methods, the rules, fractions, and abbreviations of
different bodies.
A text in 10-point may require
characters varying in height from 5- to 72-point. The following table exhibits the algebraic signs provided by type-founders as a full assortment for
ordinary work, but some of the characters are needed only in books of higher mathematics :
+ plus
— minus
= nearly equal A triangle
to
x multiplied by ~ difference
+ divided by
= equal to
f integration
= difference be- fi integration tween
of a quaternion
: ratio
« variation
* minus or plus
:: proportion
Vv square root
.. hence, there-
+ plusorminus
4 cube root
< less than
° degree
fore ‘. because
> greater than
/ minute
e infinity
¢{ not less than
” second
L right angle
>not greater
O circle
. perpendicu-
than
O square
lar to
= equivalent to
Co rectangle
= identical with
~not equal to
Z angle
= approaches
Before he begins composition, the novice should learn the names and uses of the signs, and should
closely study their arrangement in some approved treatise. Alphabetical letters and the figures that usually accompany them need no explanation, for
Roots, parentheses, and brackets
173
they are provided in every complete font of roman and italic type.
For use as exponents or indices,
thus 2”, «TM, wn, italic lower-case letters are preferred.1 4+ -X+
ee rnH#e# <>
°
tf
Poet mnosa«
VO" OO MLA
Characters on 5-point body.
The signs on the previous page are on 10-point
body, but signs are also made on 5- 6- 8- and 12point bodies.
Two bodies are often used together.
The radical sign ‘J is required on many bodies from 5- to 72-point, and the figure that defines its
power should be nested in its angle.
Vidi
did
eae ea Vuvvvvvv—v—v
Different sizes of parenthesis and bracket, varying from 12- to 44-point, will be needed to inclose the different divisions of a compounded formula.
i
jqudauee
1000000
yu
1In some formulas there may be an occasional capital, or a letter of the Greek alphabet, or inferior letters in roman, but they are rare. When roman letters
are used for superiors, the inferiors always appear in italic, or vice versa. The tendency now is to the selection of but few alphabetical letters.
174
Braces, fractions, and rules
Braces of light but firm face, in sections as well as in one piece, are made of different lengths from
10- to 72-point.
Like the parenthesis and bracket,
they are of different lengths, but on 6-point body. Nes ee oe
~—
nm
nyo
——
a ——_
——
—)
——
———
ence
Sees poe
—
ee
et
——)
oremaonee
—————
——
~)
Noe
-
Piece-fractions are often required, and special care
423533388
343335
oojn
should be taken to get those that are very distinct. i 8
A much-used notation for the fraction nowadays is the “solidus,” as 2/3, where 2 and 3 are printed in the same font as if integers.
Superior letters (usually in italic) and figures must be provided for each one of the two bodies that have been selected.
Inferior letters and figures
are not so common, but the assortment is not complete if they have not been provided. abed eo
abede
1234549345
Superior and inferior letters and figures on 10-point body.
The brass rule to be preferred for the dividing line is on 2-point body, for it will give the least trouble in justification.
Labor-saving rule of this
Labor-saving rule of service
179
body cut to even ems and ens of the text type, and in abundant supply, will be a valuable aid to neat
composition.} Algebraic expressions that show the two lines of numerator and denominator, or of dividend and divisor, separated by the usual dividing line, may need root signs, braces, brackets, and parentheses twice and sometimes thrice the height of the text letter.
If the text type is on 10-point
body, the radical sign will be of 20-
78.43
90.76
point body when small figures are used
below the vinculum, as in the upper ex- , [724+60 ample.
If figures of a larger body are
V127—96
ordered under the vinculum, then a radical sign of 25-point is needed for neat presentation of figures. The characters needed for a treatise on algebra
comprise sorts on many bodies that cannot wisely be stowed in one case, for which reason the diagram of an algebraic case is omitted.
The laying
of sorts for the composition of algebra is governed by personal choice.
The quarter-section case that
can be placed by the side of the italic cases most needed will be found of good service.
The order of
laying should be exactly the same for every size, 1 It is not good policy to allow
justification, and give needless
the compositor to cut rules as he needs them. Rules so treated are liable to be irregular as to length, with burs on cut edges or slight bends in the body, and these defects tend to insecure
trouble to maker-up, stoneman,
and electrotyper.
With proper
forethought, algebraic composition can be made as solid and
secure as that of ordinary roman ©
type.
176
Methods of spacing and lining
and a clearly written label should be pasted on each box to prevent wrong distribution. The composition of algebra differs from that of
the ordinary text in its spacing, purposely made uneven.
The italic letters that serve as symbols
for quantities must always be set close together.
Superior or inferior letters, figures, and fractions are controlled by the same rule.
But the signs
+—-— XxX + => < must be treated as distinct words, and be separated from the context by spaces of
noticeable width: Zabr — x?
14ab —Tzx
2bx
627 + 38ax
+ ab
Superior figures are always set close up to their proximate letters, but the larger figures of the text
type should be separated from following italic letters by a four- or five-to-em space.
The space may
be omitted only in a very crowded line: e+ 444 4+223
+
9?
—- 42 + 4
In algebraic formulas that have mutual relation or dependency, the figures of whole numbers must be
kept in strict vertical line according to the rules of 84+
9y +
82z — 2700
122 + 12y + 102 —
3600
ax
+
by
+
cz
-ad
ax
+
by
+
cz
-ad
a'r
+
by
+
ez
—_
q’
Terms to be distinguished in text arithmetical notation.
177
In formulas that have many
consecutive lines with few or no figures, the signs
+ and —, which separate distinct terms, must be kept in vertical line.
This rule for vertical lining
sometimes applies also to the sign x for multiplication and to + for division. It often happens that a long formula cannot be put in one line of the type selected for other formulas.
When great compactness is desired, as is
important in some school-books, it is customary to
set this long line in types of a smaller body that will take in one line all the characters.
When it
can be done, it is better practice to put the matter in two lines in large type, but the composition cannot be divided arbitrarily.
The place selected for
division should be at one of the signs +, —, or =, for they represent transition points at the end of
distinct terms.
The part turned over in a second
line must be placed in the centre of the measure: axz2—br =cra —d
Expressions that would divide badly are frequently put intact in the middle of a following line.
Connective words like as, in, again, that precede the expression in that line, are placed at its beginor again
y—-x=4
ning, and a broad white blank follows, to show that
the connective word is not a part of the formula. 12
178
Decimal fractions lined vertically
Figures inclosed in parentheses or brackets that
are inserted to refer to other formulas or terms in the same book must also be separated from the formula in that line by the same method.
They
may be at the beginning or end of the line.
Ifa
mark of punctuation is needed, it must be put after the bracket or parenthesis:
or
ax +by+cee=d
[1];
Whole numbers expressed in many figures are not
separated by the comma in triplets, as is usual in arithmetical notation, but in a decimal number the integral part should be separated from the fractional part by the decimal point.
These fractions
and the decimal point that precedes them must be kept in a vertical line in all the rows ef figures, without regard to the irregular lining at the beginning or ending of the lines: 927.67892254 3643891.5468 22982.657462
When many characters must be put in one line, the spaces between terms and signs may be relatively thinner.
The space before or after a sign
like + or — may be omitted when this sign is next
to a superior or inferior character, but it 1s better practice to use the space in all places where it will add to the clearness of the expression.
When spaces are not used
179
A visibly wider space must be presented between
distinct expressions shown in the same line:
54.a%%(a2 — 2ab + B) , No
36.a5%(a + d)
space should be put between alphabetical letters
and superior figures that are grouped in one term and inclosed in parentheses or brackets: 28 aSbicd3z8
«66 ab(ia+ 6b)
(6 a2bc®x5)3 = 216 abbicez15
When an author wishes that an expression in the
text should have noticeable distinction, he orders or marks more space before and after that expression, as it here appears:
The quotientof 18 a‘bz? by 6a%br is 3a% .
As a term cannot be divided with part of its characters at the end of one line and the other part at the beginning of the next line, some irregularity of spacing has to be tolerated. Thus the quotient of 15a%b'r by 3a?) is written 54a ; but we have seen that the quotient should be 5bx ,asthefactor a® does not alter the product, since a® is equal to 1.
The points of punctuation that separate clauses in the text have a broad space before them in any clause that ends with an algebraic term.
180
Treatment of long formulas
When a long algebraic expression cannot be put
neatly in a single line, it may be divided, but the characters in a term inclosed within brackets or
parentheses must not be divided at all.
It may be
again repeated that the proper place for division is at the signs of operation + or —, occasionally x or +: (am + an — a)x + (bm + Un — Wy + (cm + cn — cle = dm + dn + d!
To prevent the improper division of characters in
the middle of a term, the first line may be made shorter than the second: |
QO=-2
1
(
pl'p'N”)
add
-5, | naa» + N” + nnn” — N”) = In the
following example the entire expression
within the vertical braces is to be multiplied by the fraction at its left.
The arrangement of the terms
within the braces is suggested partly by the length of one of these terms, the second, and partly by considerations of symmetry.
Observe that the
fraction at the left is so placed that its dividing line meets the central point of the brace. ‘9 Ww (pl! 4 p'N”)
o!
n! nml—v") 21 4 + N” lag ll — N” oi mi! +i NY +n / (n'n"
(n! — 1)p'p"" | — p'[n’2(1 — vw’) — (vn! -1) NJ — (2.0! — 1)p" (n’-1)
7 pip! N
Value ofpoints system
181
The rule that separates the numerator from the denominator, or a dividend from a divisor, must
be exactly of the length of the longer term, as is customary in arithmetical notation, and the shorter term must be placed over or under the longer term
exactly in the centre:
2
268
= e-by
B
15
10000
“a
0.00001
When one of two terms is simple and the other is double, the point of punctuation, if one is ordered, should be opposite the dividing rule of first term :
i
_
. a
The preceding illustration shows the value of the point system in algebraic composition.
In the first
formula we have, in the middle of the term, two lines of 10-point and one dividing rule of 2-point,
that make its full height 22 points.
The characters
x = before, and = 12 after (each on 10-point body),
are easily made to centre with the cross-rule. If this formula were the only one in the mixed line, these characters could be solidly justified in that posi-
tion with an upper and a lower line of 6-point quadrats, but the second formula in the line is of greater
height, for it has two lines of 10-point and three
rules of 2-point, and must be 26 points in height.
182
Point system makes solid work
‘To justify this second formula solidly with the first, an upper and a lower lead of 2-point must be added to the first formula. Point bodies simplify justification. If types and rules are not on the point system, the exact justification of two formulas in one measure will be much more troublesome.
The solid manner in which algebraic formulas ean be constructed is plainly represented in the following diagram, copied with slight alteration from the Katechismus der Buchdruckerkunst:
) or
- 5 tax + Const. — 3 £0) ete,
When a short but complex formula is incorporated in the middle of a line of plain descriptive matter, it is customary to begin the work by setting up this formula first, which is then temporarily put aside in another stick.1
Then the descriptive
text that begins the line is set in the first stick.
If
the text is of 10-point, and the formula is 22 points high, this difference of 12 points must be made up 1A second stick with knee adjustable by a clasp (Grover pattern) will be helpful in the composition of complex formulas,
Formulas encorporated in the text
183
by setting a line of 6-point quadrats under the text matter, and adding over that matter another line of 6-point, or two lines of 7-point can be used. This treatment will bring the text matter on the central line of the formula, where it should be. Then the formula temporarily put aside in another
stick can be added, and the remainder of the text for that line can be composed in like manner.
To
produce solid justification, leads and cards must be avoided wherever it can be done safely.
The incorporation of a short complex algebraic
expression within a line of descriptive text in plain
roman type unavoidably produces wide blanks between the lines of that text.
Some authors prefer
to have short expressions in the centre of a separate line, but this method cannot be resorted to when
they appear too frequently in the copy. The two expressions
when N
=n and ae are equal
is equal to n?; and when N
equal to n?, the expressions
N+n?
is nearly 2 n?
are nearly equal; therefore their arithmetical
mean is nearly equal to their geometrical mean. The vinculum that projects from the root sign must be of the exact length of the expression it is intended to cover:
Va
W162 a7bat
~
184
Exponents and inferior letters
In an expression which involves two radical or root signs, where the vinculum of one root overlaps that of the other root, as will be seen in the illustration
that follows, the superior vinculum must show a visible separation from the lower one:
|p + _P_ 9~Vagtd Index figures are often needed as exponents. When
the signs provided are solid and not slotted, the compositor must have them properly nicked for the insertion of the figure.
This nicking can be done
with knife or chisel, if the compositor is handy with
tools, but it will be made in a more workmanlike manner with proper tools by the electrotyper.
In
either case the nicking causes annoying delay. Exponents, whether integral or fractional, should
_
be in italic, and be placed as superiors on the upper line of the symbols that they define.
am
aa
aq
mp
(40 —-2t _] )
Inferior letters, or subscripts as they are sometimes
called, are less frequently used, but they should be in italic, and be placed below the line of the letters to which they are attached.
Sm_1l
on” a
Cmn x Pr = Amn
Height of parentheses and brackets
185
Formulas may be written in which the same letter
will take an exponent and a subscript, as it does
X\""” = 0. There are a few that require two
subscripts, asin
tang oXm = Pz.
Integral signs may take a letter at the foot and at the top.
Sometimes these letters have expo-
nents or subscripts arranged thus: l
J, (T—R)
we
J
Vade
The abbreviations sin, log, cos, tang (for sine, logarithm, cosine, tangent) should be in roman character in all formulas, and should not be fol-
lowed by an abbreviating period.
The superior
figure that may follow the abbreviation of sin, cos, etc., must not be separated by a space.
7 | ( sin ¢ ) ( sin ¢ | +P l—cose
1+cosc
Parentheses, brackets, and integral signs that pre-
cede or inclose a fractional expression must be of
the exact height of the expression, including dividing or vinculum rules.
This must be done if but one of the parentheses, or but one of the brackets, comes immediately after or before a fractional term. It must also be done
186
Marking of figures for logarithms
when one or more of the intermediate terms of the
expression are fractional, the first and last terms
being integral, as in
| wn — N’ (= _ pan | p"
But if the brackets or parentheses inclose integral terms only (as shown below), they should be on the
same body as that of the characters within them: n'[n + (nin! _ N")p'p"'|
When radical signs occur within parentheses, the parentheses should be of the same height as the
radical sign :
lp va) Woy (Wa ay. (JO29 aE29) P-q 6 When many parentheses have to be employed, one within another, they may be selected of different heights according to relative importance, but they
make an awkward formula.
It is better practice
to use a bracket for the exterior sign of inclosure, and this bracket need be no higher than the interior parentheses.
In a logarithm the short stroke that overlaps a negative integral figure or “characteristic” must
not be wider than the figure.
If the characteristic
have two figures, the stroke should overlap both.
92.3010300
15.1345769
Composition of complex expressions
187
In the expression of fractions continued in many
different lines, the figures selected for the divisors should be placed exactly under the figures —-——=1+ —— used as dividends, and
+ ——
the divisor rule should
exactly overlap these figures, as is shown in the illustration.
Q+
:
2+ 1+ 1+
Manuscript copy of
algebra is usually prepared with care: the writer makes clear the difference between the ordinary
and the superior characters, and tries to put no more letters and figures in the manuscript line
than can be properly expressed in one line of type. Yet it often happens that the compositor may be perplexed by the inequality in the length of the characters above and below the dividing rule in a complex formula.
Will it come or not come within
the measure without wrong spacing? The old way
was to set all the characters (those above as well as below the dividing rule) in one long line and put
them aside upon a short galley, where the spaces could be rearranged. It is a better way to begin and complete the com-
position of the fractional portion of the expression in a Grover stick, which readily allows a readjustment of the measure and of the spacing between
terms or factors.
If this fractional expression con-
sists of two lines of 10-point and one 2-point rule,
188
Tables and table-work
the height of the formula will be 22 points, which must also be the height of the larger brackets or
parentheses, if they are needed.
When these signs
have been reckoned, the compositor can mentally determine the spacing of the term that precedes or follows the complex part. He puts in the stick of full measure two blank lines of 6-point quadrats (one above and one below the 10-point line), and then adds to them the complex part already set in
the stick. The building up of a formula of complex ex-
pressions would be easier if the italic lower-case letters could be cast on adjusted sets with spaces
that exactly make up their deficiencies.
Too many
letters, not fractional parts of the em, have to be
justified to make solid composition.
TABLES AND
TABLE-WORK
When the compositor had to cut the brass rules for a table with a tinman’s shears and mitre them
with a file, he had good cause to dislike table-work. These clumsy tools are seldom used now, for every modern printing-house has small machines that cut
and mitre rules quickly and neatly.
The machines
are not always needed, for labor-saving rule of many lengths and with right and left mitres is in
common use. Nor is the mitring of corners always obligatory on odd lengths, for neat angles can be
Illustrations of simple forms
189
made on flat-faced rule by a simpler process, as has
been shown on page 53.
Thick borders are no
longer in favor; shrewd critics say that the border must not be blacker than the words and figures to
be inclosed.
In many recent books of fair work-
manship, the tables are not inclosed in a border, nor are brass rules put between the columns in any
place where they do not give a greater clearness to the figures.
Improved tools and materials and the tendency toward greater simplicity lighten the labor of table-
work, but they do not materially change its nature. Tables require more skill than plain type-setting,
but this skill is not entirely that of hand-work.
<A
' table in manuscript can be properly set only when it has been wisely planned by previous head-work. The method to be observed in setting up the different columns of a table of words and figures is not unlike that practised in setting the columns of
a newspaper.
One column must be made perfect
in length, headings, and blanking out before the next can be put by its side.
Each column that con-
tains words must be separately composed in its own narrow measure.
Work so done is often tedious,
but when the table has been properly planned, and
each column correctly justified, much of its difficulty has been removed. Explanations of the methods now in use may
begin with illustrations of the simplest forms of
table-work.
Words, names, or figures of the same
190
Half measure for alphabetized names
class are usually set in columns, for the columns classify them, and make reading easier and more rememberable. To set one after another the names of persons, or the specification of different amounts in certain years, in ordinary paragraph style, is
confusing to the reader.
It is a much commoner
practice to arrange them in columns, thus: Edward A. Adams
J. Pierpont Morgan
George F. Baker
Levi P. Morton
John Claflin
Alexander E. Orr
Elbert H. Gary
William Rockefeller
Abram 8. Hewitt
James Stillman
Morris K. Jesup
William K. Vanderbilt
To keep these names in vertical line and in alpha-
betical order, make up a stick to one half the width — of the broad measure, and set and justify each name
separately.
Empty the lines so set in order on a
galley, and then make up to the broad measure. Allowance for a vertical brass rule between the
columns is sometimes made, but the rule is not needed, for the white space at the ends of lines in
the first column is a sufficient separation.! 1 Yet a separating lead
be-
tween the columns may be of service. If a name is added or cancelled in the proof, the lead will lighten the labor of making the needed change. It is not practicable to set the two columns iv broad measure, for the second column will be more or less out of vertical line. It is possible to set the two names of one
line in one stick and in the broad measure by the aid of a remov-
able justifying gauge, as will be hereafter explained; but if the list of names is long and must appear on more than one page, the alphabetizing of the names may be faulty, and the fault will be hard to correct. The time saved by the justifying gauge
will be lost in correction.
— Broad measure for figures only
191
Columns of names were once set in full capitals of the type of the text, but this treatment makes them needlessly and offensively bold.
Small capi--
tals with capital initials are preferred by many for a long list of signatures at the end of a document. For a list of names inserted in the body of a text, plain roman lower-case is now in more favor.
Pe-
riods should be used after all abbreviated names,
but there is no need of comma or period at the end of names arranged in columns. Columns of figures only, on the en-quadrat body, that do not call for justification in separate measures, may be safely set in broad measure. Population of the Year
Total
United States Males
Females
1900...... 76,303,387....... 39,059,242...... 37,244,145 1890...... 63,069,796....... 32,315,063...... 30,754,693 1880...... 50,155,783....... 25,518,820...... 24,636,963 1870...... 38,008,371....... 19,493,565...... 19,064,806
1860...... 31,443,321....... 16,085,204...... 15,358,117 1850...... 23,191,876....... 11,837,660...... 11,354,216
For the ordinary pamphlet a table of this kind can be set in broad measure without vertical rules. For a work of great nicety it is customary to add the rules, which may be of service in filling up the wide gaps produced by a succession of leaders. When figures are planned for many columns that must be kept in timely or numerical order, each
192
Treatment of narrow tables
column should be separately composed, so that all can be made up in order when the matter in the table has to appear on more than one page. Number of ems to the linear foot American system 3-point. . .289.15
10-point .86.74
28-point .30.98
316-point . 247.84
11-point .78.86
30-point .28.91
4-point. . .216.86
12-point .72.28
32-point.27.10
416-point .192.77
14-point .61.96
36-point .24.09
5-point.. .173.49
15-point .57.83
40-point .21.68
5 '4-point . 157.72
16-point .54.21
42-point .20.65
6-point. . .144.57
18-point .48.19
44-point.19.71
7-point. ..123.92
20-point .43.37
48-point .18.07
8-point. ..108.43
22-point .39.43
60-point. 14.45
9-point... 96.38
24-point .36.14
72-point .12.04
A table that specifies words, dates, and amounts in columns can be set in a broad measure, but if
any column has words of irregular length, it is bet1890... Jan. 12... $160.50
ter practice to set the
1891...May
1... 150.50
columns in at least two
1892... Feb.
3... 125.00
distinct measures.
1893... Jan. 20... 175.00
1894... Feb.
3... 168.00
1895... May 16... 160.00
Tables that give a column arrangement to the name, business, and resi-
dence of many persons are properly connected with leaders, but the columns should not be separated 1A table that has but two or three narrow columns should not be spread out to span the full measure. It will be as readable
and neater in a narrowed measure, with type set by its side, as shown above in the table of half measure.
Justifying slugs in broad measure
193
by vertical column rules when the matter has been prepared to be read across the columns.
When it is intended that the initial letters of each column shall be in vertical line, three distinct measures can be made, each column being separately justified and afterward re-made up to the full width of the broad measure.
A quicker method is often
adopted, as is here explained : Begin by cutting a gauge from a type-metal slug or a brass rule of proper thickness to the combined
width of the second and third columns, as is shown
in the strip A.
Then cut the gauge B of the width Bown A Py
ee ae
pean
|
R. Hoe & Co. ..... Printing Presses .504 Grand Street Lovejoy Company ..Electrotypers ...446 Pearl Street Harper & Brothers .Publishers ...... 331 Pear] Street
of third column only.
After setting in a stick of
full measure the names in the first column, put the long slug A in the stick, and justify the name col-
umn uptoslug A.
Then remove that slug and set
the words for the second column, which should be justified in like manner to meet the slug B.
That
done, remove slug B and justify to the end of the measure.
This method saves time and makes un-
necessary the use of three distinct measures in as many sticks and the combining afterward of the
three lines in one full line, but it calls for care in justification. 13
194
To determine width of columns
Slugs as justifying gauges can be used for more than three columns, but they are not recommended
when the words in any column have to be turned over and fill two lines of the column.
They can
be used with most advantage for undivided matter
that reads across the page.
The turning over of
words in one column and the unavoidable insertion
of parallel quadrat lines in other columns is always to be avoided, for the table so treated has a ragged appearance.
A name or a business with words
too long to come within the prescribed limit of a column may project a little in the following column,
even if this projection does destroy the vertical lining of its initials.
An occasional projection
carries with it the apology for its unavoidability.! The first difficulty met by the apprentice in trying to compose a table from manuscript copy that
has many columns separated by brass rules and with cross-headings in small type is his uncertainty about the proper width of each column.
Before he
begins work on any table, simple or complex, he should know whether it is or is not to be set with dividing column rules and inclosed in a border rule. Next in order should come the inquiry as to the
space it may or must occupy: whether it is to be in its height a part of a full page or a full page; 1 When the words in any line _ of anarrow column are toomany for the measure, they may be abbreviated or set in smaller type if the author permits. Small
type that will prevent abbreviations is to be preferred. The turning over in a separate line of the excess of words should be the last resort.
To determine width of columns
195
whether it is to be a part of or the full width of the regular measure; whether it is to be set broad so as to read the long way of the page, or whether it can be set in two sections to extend over two fac-
ing pages.
All these conditions must be known
before he can determine, even approximately, the
size of the type that must be used.
_
The first process is to count the number of col-
umns and to determine the width of each column. When the columns are of figures only, width can
be quickly ascertained, for figures on en-quadrat body favor precise reckoning; but if two or more columns show words, the calculation will be more troublesome.
Select the column that is apparently
of greatest width, and let the longer lines in that
column determine its width, for this width must control that of other columns.
It often happens
that the words in the different lines of this column are of variable length—some very short, some very long—and it may be necessary to narrow the measure by abbreviating words or by the use of smaller type, as has been advised for tables of simpler form. Yet there are long lines that cannot be so treated ;
they must be turned over to oceupy two or more separate lines.
This will compel the lengthening
not only of that column but of the entire table, and the insertion of lines of quadrats in the parallel lines of its side columns. Much discretion will be required in narrowing a
‘column.
It should not be pinched to make obscure
196
Cross-headings of tables
the words put in that column or in other columns.
Legibility is the great merit of a table.
It should
be as readily readable as the matter in the text; its words or figures should not be huddled to indis-
tinctness, as they must be when column rules are allowed to crowd too closely against the words or figures—a common practice, sure to produce confusion.
Allowance should be made wherever it is
possible for a space between rule and figure. Before a column rule can be cut, the longest col-
umn of type should be set.
If each column requires
a short cross-heading in small type, this cross-heading should be set up, with a proper blank on each
side of the cross-rule, and a similar blank at the head and foot of the full column where it will be separated from the text by the broad cross-rule of
the full width of the measure.
If this column is
one of a series of two or more columns in the same
table that is to be surmounted by a broader cross-
heading, a similar allowance must be made for the space that will be occupied by the words of that heading and its cross-rule.
Next, compute the width of the brass rules (in-
cluding the border rule, if one is required) that will be needed to separate the columns.!
When it is found after proper calculation that the figures and words of a table cannot be got in 1 This can be done by mental 8 points, or 20 points in all, and calculation: six 2-point rules this will narrow the space for the will make 12 points thick, two figures or words of the table by border rules of 4-point will make 20 points, or two long-primers.
Column rules and borders
197
the prescribed space without the crowding of rules close to words or figures, thereby making the table hard to read, two alternatives are presented: a smaller type must be used, or the table must be enlarged, so that it can be read the long way of the page or across two facing pages.
Space should be
preserved on each side of the column rule wherever it is possible.
More than any other characters in
the font, figures need space for legibility, and this space is also needed at the head and foot of every distinct column. A table is unsightly when its crossrules crowd on letters; it suggests neglected calculation.
Every column rule should extend from the broad-
measure cross-rule at the top of the table to the broad cross-rule at its foot, if one is used. It should
go between column headings in small type.
It isa
common practice but it is not good workmanship to use a broad-measure cross-rule below the column headings, for it divides the table in two sections.
The thick double-rule border around a table has been supplanted in most printing-houses by a firm border line of 1-point face on a 4-point body.
This
1-point face should be flush with one side of the rule, so that a perfect joint can be made at the cor-
ners of a table without mitring.
The upright col-
umn rules and the cross-rules of column headings will fairly meet the border rule and prevent the unpleasing gap of white that was unavoidable when the face of the border rule was centred on its body.
198
Columns made up to even ems
Hach column should be made up, when it can be
done, to even ems of the type that will be used in the table, for it is often necessary to extend the column by leading.
To cut short leads for lead-
ing out figures in a measure of two, three, or four
ems is always arisk.
The leads may not be abso-
lutely uniform in thickness; they may be of uneven
thickness by more or less use, or they may be bent in cutting, or be cut with rough edges.
The en
quadrats or three-to-em spaces of the type selected for figures will separate lines with more evenness than cut leads, and will give less annoyance to the maker-up and electrotyper.
Columns made up of irregular widths and not to even ems of the type are leaded and justified with needless trouble.
In some instances thin leads or
strips of paper have to be added to make solid work:.! _
In a table that has to be put within too small
space, as in time-tables, census reports, and work of like nature, the crowding of column rules against
figures is unavoidable, but in the occasionaf tables
of good book-work pains should be taken to prevent
this crowding.
The words and figures of a table
should have at least as much distinctness as the roman type of the text. 1In the table on the next page the columns of figures on 8-point body are each of three ems width, and the first column is of ten ems width. They are more quickly and securely justified with en
quadrats than with leads.
The
8-point figures with fair amount of space between lines and rules are more readable than would be 10-point figures that had to be set solid and crowded close up to the column rules. It is the white space that gives legibility.
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200
Treatment of column headings
Complaint is often made that the time-tables of railroads are hard to read even when their figures
are of good cut. They are made indistinct, in many instances, by the selection of too large figures that fill the body with a needlessly bold and black face,
and that crowd against each other and the siderules.
Bold-faced figures need space for their dis-
tinctness. The selection of a smaller figure that gives a sufficient relief of white between the lines will make the table more readable.
The composition of column headings is always
troublesome. In some headings the words will be short and in others very long. They are read with most facility when set to parallel the lines of the table.
To do this, abbreviations have to be used
occasionally, but this treatment is always a misfortune.
Very small type is the preferred alterna-
tive, but long words in a column two or three ems
wide and parallel to lines of figures are sometimes impossible.
For headings of this nature the small
type must be set in a wider measure to greater length, and be arranged at right angles with the lines of figures.
The length of the measure to be
used must be that of the heading that has most words.
In the ordinary table, the matter so set
should be placed over the column to read up, not
down.
To insure exact justification, the width of
column headings of many words set sidewise should be tested in a stick made up to the exact width of the column.
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202
Tables on facing pages
A table in manuscript with columns too numerous
for its fair presentation in the type of the text and in its regular measure may have to be set in a type of smaller size.
This is an unpleasant alternative,
but if the small type has to be used to get all the
columns in the measure, the lines of figures will be made much clearer when they have been leaded with three-to-em spaces or en quadrats.
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If figures of
A useful case for tables of figures.
the text type are insisted on, the table can be set to a wider measure to read the broad way of the page, or it can be made up in two sections to appear on
facing pages.
It may be fhat the first column of
the table, which explains the figures in each column, will have to be repeated on the second page.
It is
better to do this than to bewilder the reader with no visible connection between the figures and their explanatory column, or to give unsightly gaps of space between columns.
Tables should be made readable
203
In extreme cases, each half of the table so divided may be made wider than the regular measure, but each page must be carefully made up so that the
two parts will be on exact line in the printed and folded sheet.
This method is often unavoidable,
but it makes extra trouble for every following workman, from the maker-up to the bookbinder.
Some tables are of great length and have to be continued on many pages, but the general heading
and the special cross-headings of each column must be repeated on every page. Tables that have columns of unequal length, that
are sometimes crossed by a diagonal rule, and have
a smaller square table within the diagonal blank so created, are always exceedingly difficult.
To insure
proper solidity, great care must be given to justification.
Another troublesome variety of table is that in
which column rules have to be cut in two or more sections to admit one or more long cross-lines of explanatory words. By the old method the column rules were not cut, and single types had to be filed
down or spaced out to make them fit in each column.
The work could not be neatly done, and this
tedious and clumsy method is now out of use.
Needless compactness is a common fault in the
occasional tables of a book. Figures, rules, and cross-headings are crowded in too small space, and
the table is made repelling to the reader. A table of 6-point figures in a text of 10-point may not be
204
Column rules should meet border rule
avoidable when the table must be on the same page
as its descriptive text, but this glaring contrast of sizes can be made less offensive by leading the lines of figures and by giving a fair relief of white space to cross-headings.
When the text is leaded, the
lines of figures in its table should also be leaded wherever it is possible.
As the figures occupy in
their height about two thirds of the body, while most lower-case letters occupy less than one half of the body, there is more need of space between lines of figures than lines of letters. An occasional table of two or three narrow columns does not need an inclosing brass-rule border, when this border is made bolder than the figures
within.
Books of tables that fill the page are now
set up by many careful printers without any border. A firm-faced cross-rule under the general heading, without rules on the side or at the foot, is a much more common method. Thetype used for column headings should be clear
enough in plain roman lower-case letter.
To put
a heading of one or two words in capitals or titleletter over the broader columns, because there is
plenty of space for the words, and to put other head-
_ ings in very small lower-case letters makes a distinction of display that is not needed by the reader, nor does it improve the typography. Column rules and cross-rules should be cut so
that they will connect with the inclosing border rule.
Wood reglet, always too easily compressed,
Parallel rules to differentiate classes
205
should not be preferred to fill blank columns.
If
wood has to be used, the head and foot lines of the column should be of quadrats, that provide a more
solid resistance to compression in locking up.
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From Lefevre’s Guide Pratique.
When the different columns of a table are arranged in two or more classes, a thin parallel rule may be used to show more clearly the distinction between
these classes.
The object of the table is to show
figures or words, and not to show the rules.
An
interior rule that has a line thicker than that of
the words or figures detracts from their legibility. The French method of using long brass braces to
206
Decimal points needed in tables
connect the different columns of the subheadings shows ingenious composition, but the braces are not of benefit to the reader.
The plain hair-line
serves a better purpose.
The error made by selecting figures too small and
rules and braces too large is evident in this table. If the degree mark and minute mark had been put
over their respective columns, figures two sizes larger could have been selected.
If hair-lines had
been used instead of braces and double rule, the
table would have been much more readable. When a column has figures that require a point
to separate dollars from cents or integers from their decimals, the period on the en body, or the en leader, should be preferred.
If one on the en body is not
to be had, use the regular period of the font, if on
the four-to-em body.
If the period is on the five-
to-em body, justification will be troublesome.
The
practice of using a space instead of a period to separate dollars from cents is not to be commended.
Cents are decimal fractions of the dollar, and the decimal point is needed in every statement that calls for the expression of a decimal fraction.
A decimal
expression of measurements or values without its
point is unmeaning.
It isa misfortune that the dollar mark, the pound
mark, and other signs occasionally used in narrow columns are often cast on bodies not easily justified.
The en quadrat or the three-to-em space is
too thick and the four-to-em space is too thin.
All
Knowledge of music is valuable
207
the sorts needed for table-work should be on bodies that favor perfect justification in the narrowest column. Table-work is one of the nicest of the composi-
tor’s acquirements, and needs careful study and training.
Too much stress cannot be laid upon
the necessity of accurate casting off and justification, for which exact knowledge of the proportions
of types will be of great help.
An imposed table
should be lifted as securely as a page of text.
.
MUSIC
The composition of music types requires consid-
erable skill and practice.
It cannot be compared
with other type composition.
The nearest com-
parison is apparently genealogical work, in which columns have to be made wider or narrower, or table-work, because it has to be cast off; but an expert pedigree-maker in type, or an expert table-
hand, would find himself puzzled were he to un-
dertake the composition of music without previous knowledge,—to set it up ‘out of his own head,” as it were,—as he would if he undertook
a difficult problem in the manipulation of letterpress.
A music compositor should have a knowledge of
music, in order to give the proper space to each note
on account of its value in time, and also the proper place to each music sign.
A knowledge of music
208
Breaks in lines to be avoided
would seem to be an absolute necessity.
Yet it is a fact that some proficient music compositors have
no knowledge of music.
Intuition governs them.
This is mentioned to show that, while knowledge
of music is a great help in the setting of music, it is not absolutely necessary.
It is no more aston-
ishing than the fact that there are a large number of letterpress compositors who have not been properly taught grammar, and yet can set a clean proof from manuscript improperly prepared.
Music type is cast on an em basis, the smallest piece being anen.
The lines of the staff are an
en, an em, one and a half, two, three, four, and five ems, when cast in metal, but brass lines are now supplied in any length required.
The object of
having long lines is to have as few joinings as
possible, thereby reducing to a minimum unsightly breaks, which appear when the edges of the lines
wear away.
This used to be avoided when stereo-
typing by the plaster process was in vogue. A brass rule the length of the line was deftly impressed in
each line of the staff in the plaster mould, which
gave the plate an unbroken line in each staff.
The
music published by London (England) firms has often been admired for its even joins.
With the
advent of electrotyping the practice seems to have fallen into disuse.
In music composition the lines should be crossed whenever practicable, to avoid the appearance of
breaks as much as possible.
If they are set like
Clef the key to the tones
209
this, — — —they are more likely to show the
divi — — =sion than this way:— Set your lines crosswise.
Some ——-— -——
fonts of music have two lines cast on one body ——.
This facilitates the work, but has its draw-
back in showing open spaces when worn, besides which, if one line is damaged, the other is of no use. The lengths of the lines have their duplicates in _ quadrats, which are cast on a single and a double
body.
Slugs are generally used for over five ems.
The staff is composed with five lines and four
spaces, made by the shoulders of the lines; and in
order to tell the names of the tones which the notes represent a character called a clef is placed at the beginning.
The clef determines the names of the
tones on the staff to which it is affixed. There are three clefs in music; two are fixtures and oneis movable.
The clefs that are fixtures are
called F and G, and the movable clef is called C. Originally the staff was composed of eleven lines. It is now in two divisions of five lines each, called
the bass and treble staffs, with a line between, which makes up the complement of eleven lines, and this line is called C:
(OMe.
fa
DEFGABCDEF
eet ~ s_* GABCDEFGABC
The C clef represents either soprano, alto, or tenor. 14
210
Names of clefs on the staff
The top clef is called G, which gives that name to
the second line from the bottom, because the curl of the character encircles it, and the rest of the tones
on that staff have their names fixed accordingly. The bottom elef (bass) is called F, which gives
that name to the fourth line, because bounded by
the two dots, and which also determines the names of the other tones upon that staff.
These two clefs
always occupy the same position, but the position
of the C clef varies with voice or instrument—tenor or alto, for example.
It is generally made of two
bars with two lines on each side.
The space or
line between the bars is called C, which also deter-
C
1.
E
mines the names of the other tones on that staff.
nmr
oS
__ f
a
E
F
G
o, tat
iimtt
a
sn
D
F
E
—————— A
B
C
es G
D
E
——s
A
B
C
— o—+—-9
fa
aan
EE
F
D
oO.
3.
E
F
SS ——— GA
B
Cc
D
6G
It will be noticed that 2, 3, and 4 differ in their tones, while 1 and 3 appear to be the same.
There
Signature and time of notes
211
is an octave difference, and when 1 is represented by 3 clef it should be played or sung an octave higher. The F and G clefs are cast in one piece, but the C clef is of different pieces: _i9:
In some fonts the double bars on each ide side are cast in one piece on a two-line
body
1.
‘~'
This would require only half the num-
ber of pieces J#t . The key to "ft the music is called the signature, which is composed of either sharps or flats, and is placed next to the clef.
The signature indicates
that notes upon the line or space of the sharp or flat shall be performed sharp or flat accordingly,
unless the order is countermanded by a natural :
=
=
Three sharps after the clef take up three ems space,
while three flats take up only two and a half ems, an en only being required between B and A
flat,
each two lines deep, but a line sharp is three lines deep, sometimes on a two-em kerned body. Next to the signature comes the time-mark.
€& is two ems long and three lines deep.
The
The fig-
ures are two ems long on a single body, with a line through them:
The notes have
functions — sound
time.
$=
+2346 8 gs — & £ two —
and
The note occupying the longest time (used
212
Time values of notes
mostly in recitative) is called a breve:
Ht
This is made up of separate pieces. A Sa St
space note occupies two lines and takes eight pieces,
and a line note occupies three lines and takes thir-
1B
:
E rTT
dia,e
bee
teen pieces, except as shown in preceding page:
-
The note next in duration of time is called a semibreve: ——— being half the value in time of the breve, as its name denotes. This note is the foundation upon which time is based, and is called
a whole note.
The note next in order is called a
minim, or half note, two of which are of the same
value in time as the semibreve.
This note, like its
predecessor, is white, with the addition of a stem.
The notes following are black.
Below are given
the time values of the notes, those of greatest value being placed on the under or bass staff: fa
|
_|
rT
‘WR
4
‘TR
Tree
ee
Each additional tail decreases the value of the note one half.
Allowance will have to be made when
casting off a brace.
A brace is more than one line
played or sung in unison.
A dot added to a note
Difference in B and D noteheads
= 213
increases its time value one half, and a second
ni
aaa
|
sn
dot is half the value in time of the preceding dot:
E
With the exception of the semibreve (or whole
note), the notes are composed of different pieces— heads, stems, tails (sometimes called hooks), and
ties.
The noteheads occupy one line, the space
notehead being kerned and resting on the shoulder
of the line next to it, except a unison notehead in the space, a connecting notehead in the space, and
a B and D notehead in the space, which are generally cast on
adouble body.
The B notehead is the
note in the first space outside the staff, with the stem outside the staff.
Its name distinguishes it,
and its position gives the name to its tone.
The
notes outside the staff are called leger notes, and are distinguished by a thicker line in some fonts. en line extends beyond the note each way.
An WNote-
heads in the space, on a two-em body without the top line, are called D noteheads.
|
P
|
a |
ea e+ a
| a ly
ee | }
noteB note- Dt head. head.
|
-@-
|
-0-
Note the difference:
-0-
££ =~ 26+ # F a ne On Co
oe 6 | —
Leger notes.
_j 4—_—_ | _ —___]
214
Tying and binding of notes
The stems of the notes are on single and double bodies, sometimes three bodies deep.
The single-
body stems are called angles or T pieces, and are en, em, one and a half ems, two ems, and longer.
The double-body stems begin at an em and proceed
the same as the single body.
They take different
forms for use inside and outside the staff, and are manipulated in quite a number of different ways: Full.
Angle: 7
Cut.
=
Full.
B stems: a
Full.
-
Double body: 4
J
Plain stems:
Cut.
-]
Fall.
HOW A NOTE Space. Line. eS
os E
Line. o
b
a
I or
oe
EF
—
Space.
b
4
Space.
—2 6 —
a
_____L_
A)
—
+
a
i”
Cut.
Full.
|
t
IS MADE
Together.
Together.
Cut.
4
Line. @
be
7
Line.
4
=a
y)
Together. l
——
~-s—
Space.
Together.
A
I~
4
a
A line notehead stem is longer than a space note-
head stem.
The space notehead has part of the
stem attached, and this equalizes the length. When notes are grouped they are either tied or
bound by a curve.
The ties are both straight and
slanting, and are joined to the stems of the notes. The bind is to prevent accent, and this is accom-
plished by making a sustained passage begin with an unaccented note and finish on an accented one,
Accent and syncopation
215
which prevents ordestroys the accent. This is called syncopation.
Accent, if not the most important, is
one of the most important features in music. Good
rendition cannot take place without its being observed.
It is equally important with time.
It is
as important as punctuation in reading-matter or | inflection in oratory.
Take a passage in common
time, the accent being on the first and third beats: aN
Accent.
,
No
Accent.
|
—
4
accent. 4
Accent.
Accent.
Accent.
=
Ties range one em, one and a half, two, three ems,
are cast for line and space notes, the line notehead ties being kerned or overhanging, and join each other in diagonal line when up or down.
They
are up, down, and straight, inside and outside the staff, and combinations can be made in a number of
ways, depending upon the skill of the compositor: Apart.
—
Together.
oe
a
Pr
Apart.
Together.
= ~ FS @
When notes ascend or descendin thirds or more, double slants are used, the slope being more acute. When not provided, they can be made by using two 14 slants, if the space and note occupy three ems: Apart.
r
ao a +
J
ae? 7 s a
5
.
Together.
———
oe a 1 @
216
Casting off music composition Apart.
ITM= ae ~~ = 3 ye a
—
Together.
+
— =
By the use of slurs, notes glide into each other. They are cast in two, three, four, and six ems, and
can be made longer, when required, by using combination pieces.
When slurs longer than those
furnished are required, the end of a bind is used, middle pieces being added to make it of the required
length, the last one being tapered for the purpose: Up slur. ee
Down slur.
ES
ee
———
—S
Binds are sometimes called ties and straight slurs. The word bind is used because they do not touch
the notes; the ties touch the notes.
They can be
made to extend any length and are in one piece up to six ems—two, three, four, and six ems.
End
pieces are two and four ems long, the middle
pieces ranging en, one, two, three, four ems.
Like
other sorts, they are cast with the line and without:
Music composition cannot be set at random, like
type composition.
It has to be cast off before it
ean be constructed, the work of which, in difficult
parts, gives the compositor an opportunity to demonstrate his ability or show his lack of it. _
2.
2
a
4 es
ee
—"4—,-_e_}2 -*
—4—
@
a
a cr
o_o
@ i 0
nea A Ga
eo
oa
ane
_ |_@ PY | |
i rs | J-E—+ -}
How casting off can be done
217
The preceding illustration shows a line of music
copy that ends at the last bar but one. cast off by ems of its own body.
Music is
The first thing
to ascertain, on taking copy, is the length of the line in music ems.
The foregoing line consists of
forty-five ems of music.
In order to find how to
make it come out even, and at the same time to be correctly spaced, find out how much space your
noteheads, signature, time-mark, and clef will take up, and then properly distribute the rest of the space. In casting off, give most space to the notes of long
duration and economize on the ones that are tied. For example, more space should be placed after a
half note than a fourth, etc.
In the preceding line
the clef is three ems, signature two ems, time-mark
two ems, and ten noteheads of one em each. This accounts for thirtyClef, five, leaving ten ems to be distributed.
One em put
beforethe time-mark, two after it,an em extra in front of bars, and three
ems after the last note, including the end bar, will make up the required number—forty-five ems.
When possible, have the
Thus:
Signature, Time-mark,
Ten noteheads, one em each,
Ems
3
2 2
$10
Nine spaces between
the noteheads,
17
18
two ems each,
35
most space in front of the bar. Another way to east off is to set a guide-line of noteheads, making the spaces between with lines or quads. This is
218
Rests and grace-notes
easier than mental calculation and is done as follows, the noteheads being at the top of the staff: o—-0—_0—+ 0—o--
QS
pa
eS @
8212212111112 111112 111112111112121
Brass rule is sometimes used for bars, as seen in five previous examples.
Bars can be ordered from
the type-founder or made in the office.
Equiv-
alent spaces have to be used to justify when the bar is not length of line or brace.
They are made
of various lengths, and should go the depth of the line or brace.
The rests are in one piece and are cast without and with the lines of the staff.
The bar or whole-
note rest is a straight black line, and is used down-
ward on the top line but one.
It is also used for
the half-note rest, and is then turned upward and rests on the third line of the staff.
The rests are:
Bar or Whole rest.
16th reat.
Half rest.
Quarter rest.
8th rest. |
32d rest. I
=
|
a
~ “A
_
Grace-notes have a smaller face, are duplicates of
the other notes, and are manipulated in the same way, many of the sorts, such as accidentals, etc., being on an en body. Where terms are expressed in words they can be set in any type and justified.
When expressed by
characters they will be found cast with the font.
Cases for music composition
219
The following plans of cases provide for all the
sorts that are necessary for general use.
A side
box for double quads will be necessary, and also a rule case if brass lines longer than five ems are used.
Music fonts vary, and the lay of the case
has to vary with them, but the accompanying plans will be found to meet all needs, so that the encumbrance of a third or side case is obviated.
The va-
cant boxes can be utilized as occasion requires.
An
- extra case can be used for the overflow or surplus sorts.
All the characters treated are in all fonts
cast by American type-founders. of music cases can be had.
Different plans
The cases here shown
can be had through any type-foundry, but special eare should be taken to obtain the ones here illustrated.
An ordinary lower case and a triple upper
case can be arranged for the purpose. as regards number of characters.
Fonts vary
Cases also vary
in the way they are laid, each compositor having his own method.
The accompanying plans are
made to facilitate composition — noteheads, stems, ties, binds, slurs, lines, ete., being grouped.
The
aim of the writer has been to simplify the instructions needed.
If these instructions are studied and
thoroughly understood, the minor difficulties that appear in practice can be readily overcome by a compositor of ordinary ability.
Gregorian music, so named after its founder, St. Gregory, and used for chanting, is composed of
one staff of four lines. It hardly comes within the
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224
Gregorian music
Tonic sol-fa music
category of music composition as generally understood, having none of the difficulties of building or
ranging that are encountered in the old notation. The compositor sets up the line of words first and
ranges the notes over them.
No
casting off is re-
quired. It is comparatively straight matter. Previous knowledge is not necessary, and any average compositor can set it.
The noteheads are diamond
and square shaped, and the ordinary music stems are used.
In tonic sol-fa music no staff is used, letters taking the place of notes.
Each part occupies a
line, the pulses or beats being divided by colons, and the subdivisions by periods and commas, except where the accent occurs, when an inverted one em
dash is used.
When more than one part is engaged,
the beats have to range.
Brass rule the depth of
the vocal parts is used for bars.
Thus, do, re, mi,
do, in common time, would be d,;: r |
m: d!|.
The inferior stroke at the first d signifies an octave lower, and the superior stroke at the last d an octave higher. Music character expressions are used.
It is intended only for the voice, the instrumental accompaniment having to be set in the old notation.
The characters are on en and em bodies.
Having no staff, the difficulties of building have not to be contended with, making the casting off
comparatively easy, and the composition virtually straight matter, like setting a line of figures across a table, through which may be inserted the column
Genealogies and pedigrees
225
rules. It can be done by one who can set atable. The following is an illustration and will speak for itself :
Key Ep, 4%0, tenor, s
:fe
|1
is
[s.d'sr'.d'id'
: t
1.Gen - tly,
gen -
tly
morning light is break - ing,
.Mirth
mu
sic
[like a fountain flow -
and
-
ing,
msre|f
sm
|mmeif.m([m
d
:d
Id.did.d|s, : 8,
:d
|d
sr
Diamond and excelsior music type are best suited
for book-work.
Excelsior occupies the least space.
Diamond has three sizes of noteheads, Nos. 1, 2,
and 3.
Other fonts are also supplied with dif-
ferent sizes of noteheads.
GENEALOGIES
AND
PEDIGREES
The intent of the genealogical chart is a synopsis
of descent and of mutual relationship that will be understandable at a glance.
The lines that show
connection with near or remote ancestry should be plain hair-line brass rules;
if, now and then, a
brace may be needed, it should be of hght face. The words are of most importance, and should not
be made insignificant by blackness of braces.
To
present each member of the family in column form,
and to preserve a proper parallelism of columns, these columns must be of unequal width, some very narrow and some very broad; one may have but three or four words, and another may have fifteen 15
PEDIGREE
OF
Buppaist BirTs-STories.
THE
>
SANS
Jataka (lost).
KaRa
Pali about 250 B.c. .
Pali, 550
Pehlevi, or Did Pers. y Barzo
A.D.
,
570
ed. Fausball, 1877-79.
Cingal
E ! pe
1320, 1415, 7, 1780.
4
(Fausboll, = Davi
Cingalese,
ng.
Eee, ver £878.
b
ed
Yo Its
|
S
1.
.
bee wa Damnag, ed. kel, 1874. by Abdel at lokata
R. Mori
{ed
(Bi German
» Schultens, 1
de Sacy, 1816, and
6 other edns. 1834-1882),
ickell, 1874).
Sageay)
(1871).
Heb.
pt.
TAE
|
Cingalese (lost).
pt.,
i?
Fr. Du!
[
(2 edns, 18:
by ne1914 (x)mart nibn Jat Pers. verse,
(2) Abd al-Mamun.
Pets. (as)
E
Hindustani, 2803.
Syriac II. (roth cent.) (ed. Wright, 1884). Eng. (Keith-Fal-
1851, Pro Se ha aiidus, 1780, Penton, 1884). | |
|
Latin
Tealian,
(Possinus, 1666. Surk, 1
Old Slavonic
geverne de regni
| Germ.
‘ed. Bu 1877
(3 eds., 15831872).
(Lehmus, 1778).
Et \opi
(ed. Proled 1697, 2nd
coner, 1885). 1
Greek I.
by S. Seth, ro8o. (lost Sregan aa id wai huwares
| Dakhni, 1824,
L Mata
by Nasrullah, (MS) by x (MS.)
Pers. I ., 1500. Anwari Subaili
(4 eds. 1804-1851).
:
Croat
{ French, 1698,
[
French, 18
(ed. 1870).
(Derenbour
pe.
by Abul Fadi » (M. Ibrabeem). — Davidde Soha Easrwick tse. i Fables Pilpay. Wollaston, 187>
Pers. III. 1587,
(MS.)
|
(eo. Rezback). i ae 1861
(5 edns).
i
ce Fa
Turkish,c. 1500, (Ali
Swed. wed. I
Eng.. ng.. 1659
1745-
1Spg- 1856
Meamah Wilde. Cd. Haris ocecns.),
Chelebi, ed.
1856).
; by Galland and Cardoane,
Fr., r-—
Greek, 1783.
c~* ‘
Ge
2 Germ, 1803. 1802, 1
Crech, 1845
(F.Trebowsky
. . Span., 1654-58 by V. Bratat:. "
—. 809.
| Dutch.
B Ger mi
(ar 21 edeet edns. i
Dutch L.,
1623.
Datch IT.,
BIDPAI
LITERATURE.
_—e a
RIT L., abt. 300 a.p.
end DAMANAKA (lost).
ab.J II ?
Tibetan,| pt.,
Jew, 750. midi, 1873.
Sanskt. Mh pt.,
ed. Schiefner, 1875. |
pt. (Guidi).
|
anchatan (2 edns., 1848, 1868).
La Latin
Germ.
(Schiefner).
(Schiefner)
Chinese, pt., Avadanas. F i 5
(Julien). (Julien). >
Gg 2286
(2 edns. n96-28).
I
i1885 1871), te 851).
1.
‘ ta8..
|
by Syeeimna
Mala
Eng.
(Ben ey, eert ° (Lanae by Somadeve (rath cent.).
2873).
t-24).
3805-15).
|
tew I.
2 ed.,
whos i).
!
» Joel,
1250.
Germ.., pt. (Brockhaus, 1853).
qT | Mahratta Brij Hindi,\ pt., Germ. 2 k Fr. (2 edns., Barha 1851.Pre 1844-74.
oe
Hebrew II.
by R. Eleasar
Span. I., 1252,
Calylaa
a
Latin
verse,
b. Jacob, 1283. (ed. Gayangos, Baldo, eo).
ed. Derenbourg,
188x.
Eng.
Knatchbull,
1818).
Esopus
Eng. (Tawney, 1881).
| witkit 885; Greek. Srv Wj 799nehht 3 851 - Jones, I1799 ohnson, 3851. 1848 ; filler,” 1864:; Sir E. Arnold, 1861). Fr. pt.,
(Pihan,
1866).
2Germ
(Holmboe, 1832,
Wolff, 1837,
Latin, I 1 Mts) Raymond (MS.) ,
;
|
€. eng .
Sansk. Katha-sarit-sagara,
1804-68). aans. Hitepedess
18
72) (Alkabr, (E. Winf u
’
2 eds.)
|
Armenian, t.,
13th cent. artan.
Fr. 1676.
‘du Méril, 1! by John of ed. pt. E.1854. LATIN Capua, 1270.
Directorium vite humane (ed. 1483; Puntoni, 1884; Derenbourg, 1887).
148
483-1860). Danish
“(1618 )
| Spanish IIL.,
(10 edns. fr. 1493). zemplario
?
Ital.
French, .
8, b y Firenmola,
Dissstal (. 15 6
(Cottier.
\ Czech, Cc. 1450)
Prawidlo lidskeho “ziwota, by N. Con
|
Ital. II., 1552, by Doni,
Le Moral Philosophis (3 edns.)
Fr., 1877.
I., 1570, by T. NortH English
2 edns.)
(3 edns., 1570, 1601, 1888).
(De la Rivey,
The Morall P osophie of Doni
228
Illustrations of genealogies
or more. Unlike all other forms of type-setting, the
building of a long genealogical chart cannot begin
at. the beginning of the manuscript.
It must begin
with the columns that occupy greatest width, which
are usually at or near the foot of the chart.
Each
column should be separately set, accurately justi-
fied, and kept dampened so that it can be easily handled, for interlockings and rearrangements are unavoidable.
The process of building up separate
rows of matter for different generations has to be
done in reverse order, the matter first written
being the last set. For obvious reasons, the genealogy of a family is not offered as an illustration, but the Pedigree of the Bidpai Interature,) which is
a story of the origin and descent of a famous book, fairly shows the method used in the composition
of the genealogies of families.
It may be added
that no form of typographic composition is more 1 From Joseph Jacobs’s Earliest English Version of the Fables of Bidpai, post 8vo, London, 1888. A more carefully elaborated genealogical chart is that of the
Estienne (Stephens) family of Paris, as it is presented in the Essai sur la Typographie, by M. Ambroise Firmin- Didot, 8vo, Paris, 1851, which begins with Pierre Estienne (1270), and is continued through sixteen generations. Yet it is compacted upon a sheet 13 x 17% inches. The composition is apparently in type on 42-point body. Each member of the family is speci-
fied within a border printed in blue ink, but the braces that
show connection are in red ink. The chart is inclosed in a border of fifty-eight heraldic shields, each one presenting the peculiar device of a different member of the family. A simpler form of chart can be seen in Les Elsevier, by Alphonse Willems. 8vo, Brussels, 1880. It is for five generations only of that family, and is printed in red and black, on a long sheet 9% x 20% inches. All are admirable as illustrations of difficult composition.
__-eonieieitliet
Pedigrees of domestic animals
229
troublesome or more expensive than that of the genealogical chart. The genealogical chart in manuscript that has to be kept within a prescribed limit cannot be properly set if the copy has not been prepared in an orderly manner. If a distinct column has not been made for each member of the family, and the relation of different members to their co-relatives and to the common ancestor is not clearly defined, it will be a waste of time to try to put in type copy so negligently prepared. The matter should be rewritten, and it may be prudent to rewrite it more than once before the mutual relation of the different members of that family can be fairly presented.
In genealogical charts the name of the ancestor
is at the head of the page, and the descendants are set below in rows that are nearly parallel.
In the
pedigrees of animals the name of the progenitor Pedro of Terrace Hill 39514.
BELL
4
MADESSA
157294
(See Lot 15.)
Bellman’s Boy 14008. {
Bellman’s Dolly 77601 Dolly Crary 13117...
Bellman 6968
Grinell Lass 11859 (16.10) Duke of Onaquaga 2840
Christine 8006
and the names of his descendants usually are composed in separate columns with proper separating
blanks, after the fashion customary in some tables of figures, detachable braces being substituted for plain column rules.
The column that contains the
last generation at the end of the measure is often
230
The proper field of typography
very compact; the name of the progenitor at the left in the first column is open, with a broad blank above and below.
This method of treating a pedi-
gree is sufficient for three or four generations, but it is not so practicable on the ordinary page when
the columns are continued at great length.
Some text-books of chemistry make use of this method of composition to illustrate the compounds
and subcompounds of elementary substances.
It
is also used in botany to show the classification of
species derived from a common stock. The method makes the subject-matter much more intelligible.
Some of the older forms of troublesome composi-
tion have been discarded : the chronogram, in which
dates were suggested by roman capital letters arbitrarily arranged as numerals; acrostics with initial letters turned sidewise; literal or verbal puzzles
produced by signs ; diagrams toilsomely constructed from brass rules ingeniously curved and twisted ; facs, head-bands, and initials of combination bor-
ders or capital letters; stigmatypes of portraits made from periods of different size. Prints from
‘these compositions suggest skill and patience, but
the general effect is not pleasing. It is a mistake to try to do by typography anything that can be done more neatly and quickly by photo-engraving. Composition should exemplify its etymology, not by the construction but by the combining of its materials.
VI
FOREIGN LANGUAGES Accents ... Greek . . . Hebrew. . . German
OREIGN languages will be set with most correctness by the compositor who clearly understands the meaning of his copy, but a knowledge of more than
one language is not to be expected of the ordinary typesetter. Reprint or clear manuscript copy in Latin,
French, Spanish, Italian, or in any other language that uses the roman character, can be decently rendered in type by a careful compositor, but the difficulty of preserving accuracy increases when the copy is in Greek, Hebrew, or German, for each one of these languages has its own peculiar alphabet. 281
232
Accented letiers for roman types '
Yet Greek, Hebrew, and German characters must be provided for the proper rendering of quoted words
or lines in every printing-house that undertakes to do miscellaneous book-work. The characters required for the languages that have distinct alphabets are seldom found in the ordinary book-house. To employ them acceptably, fonts of many faces and sizes must be provided, and they should be handled by compositors and supervised by readers who have at least some
superficial acquaintance with the languages.}
ACCENTS
One peculiarity of printed English language is the absence of accented letters in an ordinary descriptive text.
It is only in dictionaries or elocutionary
KAAHALARTHATASSESSS SES SLILII11 693665
SOoOHHHULAUTIGUELY YH H HH oecdnhtstze Century Dictionary accents.
treatises that accents are freely used to guide pronunciation.
English-speaking compositors are apt
1 There are but few printinghouses of polyglot capability. Those that have justly earned a
many. In all large cities may
world-wide reputation are the
fonts of Arabic, Turkish, Syriac,
University
England, the National Printing
Coptic, Russian, Sanskrit, and other Oriental languages, but
House of Paris, De Propaganda
they are used infrequently, and
Fide of Rome, the Imperial Printing House of Vienna, and
decline
W. Drugulin
that will be rarely used.
Press
of
Oxford,
of Leipsic, Ger-
be found occasionally printinghouses that have one or more
the ordinary book-printer has to the purchase of types
Accented letters for foreign languages
233
to underrate the importance of a proper placing of
accents in the composition of foreign languages, where the same word with or without an accent may convey a different meaning. American typefounders provide and furnish, but only on special
request, these accents + for roman letter:
Bohemian:
ACDEEINORSTUUYZ Acdééindrstanryz
Danish and Norwegian: O@
Flemish:
g
EE B68 6
French: AAEEBRIOUUCaasédéstidna tii¢ German: A O U 46 ti
Hungarian: AR LOOOUUU AE 655044 Italian: AETOUAédidOd
Polish: A
CEELOSZZa ééet6$2
Portuguese: AAETOOUUNC4a 6166 titifig
Spanish: AETOUUNAéi6tvtiaA Swedish:
A A O 486
Welsh: W Y and the ordinary accents 1Thislistisincomplete.
Some
forms of Italian poetry require a special accent known as trema. Rumanian needs many accents peculiar to that language, but as yet not made in this country. The roman character predominates in Saxon and Irish, but their alphabets have some letters that are intelligible to educated readersonly. They are occasionally used in treatises on etymol-
ogy, and are to be had of the old-
established
English type-foun-
dries. For the most part, accents and points are not sufficiently distinct. The Masoretic points of Hebrew and the breathings of
Greek are relatively feeble. This feebleness seems unavoidable in accents that have to be attached to roman capital letters, where the character extends to the extreme top of the body. In many fonts accents for capitals have to kern or overhang the body.
234
The sigla and ligatures of Greek GREEK
The Greek alphabet has twenty-four capital letters, but the ordinary working font of Greek type has one hundred and seventy-four distinct characters. Some European type-founders provide a greater number. Many of the Greek capitals are of the same form as roman capitals, but the lower-case letters differ seriously and are not easily understood by the novice. All fonts of Greek made before the eighteenth century contain many doubled letters, then known as ligatures or tied letters. A manuscript in Greek calls for careful penman-
ship. Each letter should be formed with distinctness and the accents unmistakably placed over their proper vowels. Extracts pencilled in Greek books printed before the eighteenth century are bewildering to the modern compositor by reason of their
frequent use of the sigla and ligatures that are no longer made in type. 1In
his
Manuel
Typogra-
phique (tome 2, p. 248), Fournier
shows seven hundred and seventy-six distinct charactersin his provision for a perfect font of Greek type, but he says that he has not made as many as his pre-
decessors. Savage’s Dictionary of the Art of Printing (pp. 300302) gives a table of some of the more common ligatures, but the Greek grammars of the eighteenth century have more com-
plete lists. An explanation of many of these ligatures will be found in Dizionario di Abbreviature Latine ed Italiane, by Adriano Capelli. Although this dictionary professes to treat of Latin abbreviations only, itis of some service for Greek. These ligatures are not made by modern type-founders, but the accents and breathings are still retained as indispensable parts of the perfect font.
Names and values of Greek letters
235 _
The Greek alphabet
Capitals
Lower"
Name
A B r A E ZL H
a 6 6! Y 6 € ¢ y |
Alpha Beta Gamma | Delta Epsilon | Zeta Eta
Tota Kappa
:
Power a b g
1 2 3
d e short
4 5
Z e long
7 8
i kore
10
@
| 6) Theta | th
K
%
A M
h J.
|
70 80
Q Il
Ys)
Omicron
o short
TT
P p>
Pi
P | Rho O° Sigma
p
Tau
t
® X
v Q
20
30 40
| v €
Y
9
Lambda | 1 Mu m
N Be
T
Value as
| Nu |X
n x
50 60
r s
100 200
| 0 | Upsilon | w
400
c
| |
@ | Phi YX | Chi
ph ch
Ww | Omega |
o long
y
Psi
ps
300
500 600
700
800
236
Accents and points of Greek
Accents and breathings are attached to the lowercase letters where they are needed, but they are also east on separate bodies, so that they can be put
before a capital letter. The vowels @ 9 @, with subscript iota indicating the suppression of a following
t, may be considered distinct characters, but they are seldom used.
There are also two forms of
lower-case letters B 6, 8 9, 0 ¢.}
| Greek accents ’ lenis
" asper grave
* asper
|
’ acute
‘ grave
~ circumflex " circumflex lenis
—
” circumflex asper
” lenis acute
~ dieresis
" lenis grave
* dieresis acute
” asper acute
* dieresis grave
The comma, period, and exclamation-point perform the same function in Greek as in English. The Greek mark of interrogation is the English
semicolon, sometimes reversed.
The Greek colon
is an inverted period.
A study of the Greek alphabet and of a few rules that control the use of accents and breathings will be of service to the compositor, even if he needs
this knowledge only for one paragraph. 1 The characters 6 and 3 are
as an initial or medial letter it
not often required. The final s,
should be o.
at the end of a word,should bes;
/ has been suppressed.
An old form of
Cases for composition of Greek
237
The plan of the Greek case shown on this page is the one most used in the United States, but a larger case that contains boxes for more characters is the favorite in England and on the Continent.
In the
Katechismus der Buchdruckerkunst, page 55, will be found diagrams of Greek and Hebrew cases on an improved plan. A|B/T|A/E)]Z/H O/T)
K)/A|MIN|
&]
léaleeeselejeleieiejelaje
O;
PLL
©)
aaa aaa
MN)
TL]
aaa aay
X/V/Q
Gl Qi wm] Peete citte
A|H/Q
a | Db |
GlelalalalGalalalaid)
ala!
[6/b)6)6/6)6/8)5/5/5)5 5/6/86
|6)b)0/5/5)5/6)6/5)5)5)5/6)6
cj a}e}sielelelel=|+]*] ldolda id dole] doled a | eb| eo] |e = ,
care:
Greek upper case.
8
senlecn| S|
s
¢
» | ble
lelelelx
ple}
y | a | °
t | n
K
h
p
°
On
Pret 4
EE/CS}
o
t |semspacel | at
wo
Nts
v
oat
en |} em
L
Greek lower case.
238
Rules for placing accents
Nearly every word in Greek has one accent, but it has no more than one (except, under certain con-
ditions, before an enclitic).} Accents that cannot be put over a Greek capital are on separate bodies and put before the capital. The acute accent may appear only on one of
the last three syllables of a word, the circumflex only on one of the last two syllables, and the grave only on the final syllable.
The last is seldom used,
except to replace the acute accent in a final syllable
before another word in the same sentence. Every vowel or diphthong that begins a word has
either the rough or the smooth breathing over it. The vowel upsilon admits of the rough breathing
only.
A diphthong takes both the accent and the
breathing upon the second vowel.
Initial p always
has the rough breathing; double p occurring in a
word is written pp. The hyphen is never employed in Greek for the compounding of words.
The apostrophe is used to mark elision, as in It is also (under the
dvr’ éxeivnc for dvr? éxeivnc.
name “ coronis”) used to mark the consolidation of
words, with elision, as in tévdpéi for TO dvdpi, rayabd for Ta ayadd.
Sometimes the apostrophe marks the elision of
a vowel at the beginning of a word, as in @ ’yaéé for w ayaéé, but this is most common in poetry. 1 Theoretically ‘‘every word,” but it is lost by enclitics and proclitics, and, in some cases, by elision.
Different faces of Greek
239
The dieresis accent separates two vowels, so that
they will not be pronounced as a diphthong: diry with a dieresis is a word that makes three syllables, but without the dieresis av becomes a diphthong
and makes of a’r# two syllables. The rules that regulate accents are complex and not to be briefly explained.
In different positions
the same word may take different accents.
Greek types are made of many faces and on many bodies from diamond to canon.!
The face most
approved in England is known as the Porson, so called from its designer, who was not only great as
a scholar, but equally famous as a penman.
Old-
style Greek has a relatively small face, with quaint forms of lower-case characters that are now dis-
liked by the critical.
The form of Greek character
preferred in many European countries 1s compressed a little, and almost vertical in shape.
The
Greek made by Baskerville is not at all approved by Greek scholars.
The fat-faced and bold-faced
Greek, or thickened Greek, finds its greatest use for the index words of dictionaries.
_
Inscription Greek, or lapidary Greek, of rude form and consisting of capital letters only, is used for the proper rendering of oid lettering cut on stone. The facsimile, on the next page, of the Greek of Selwyn Image was made for the Macmillan Company. 1 Pickering’s edition, in two volumes, of the Iliad and the Odyssey in diamond Greek is a_
of typography. It is probably the smallest form of Greek type ever printed, yet its presswork
remarkably beautiful specimen
is wonderfully clear.
240
Different faces of Greek
ABTAEZHOIKAMNZOIPLSTYOXFYQ
aBydeCnO98tKkApvionpoctvdYYpY Porson Greek.
ABTAEZH@OIKAMNZOTIPSTT&XY¥Q
aBEyvydsl2nbSixrApveowpepogrvexX tu Old-style Greek.
ABTAEZHOLKAMNEZEONPSTY@®@X¥R aBySeCnunDPexAuvgonraegrgsctvg¢zxzyo Title or fat-faced Greek.
ABFAEZHOIKAMNGOTPXLTLTOXVR aBpGydeCyOdrxApvéEoxpoctvbX ow Continental Greek.
PPIHNEI..... AMISL|
EYPANIZKOZKAIA/. .INOYKAOYO ZTIANAENIKAZIAAMOYATHZIANAPO. -YAAMOYTIMATOPAZED...AKAEYE
NETPATOZTEIZ..... NAPOZE -TANYMOYAIPEOGER......YAA Inscription or lapidary Greek of capitals only.
ABPAEZHOIKAMNEOMPCTTOXYO “Op uin G Gnodpec ‘AcHNaion Ta mapénta npdruata moAAHN ducKo\iaN
Zyonta Kai Tapayrin, ob udNON To NoAAG The Greek type of Mr. Selwyn Image.
Names and values of Hebrew letters
241
HEBREW
The Hebrew alphabet consists of consonants only,
but the addition of pomts gives to some of them the power of vowels.
It is in one series, without
difference in form for capitals or lower-case, and has no need for small capitals or for italic. Some of
the letters are varied in shape when used as finals. Its numerals, made by arbitrary powers given to letters, are placed in the following table at the end of the lines, opposite their proper letter. The Hebrew alphabet
Letter |
Name
Value || Letter
Name _ | Value
x
| Aleph
1)
5
Beth
2
5
Gimel
38
“
Daleth
4 | y
5 | pA | Pe
80
5
Vav
6
Y
90
’
Zayin
7
D
| He
ms
55
|Mem |
40
3 |
Nun
00
1 DB
Samek | 60 Ayin
y
Tsadhe |
70
Q’oph | 100
ry
Cheth
8
"
Resh
ca)
Teth
9
fry
Sin
Shin
300
yy
Tav
400
ae Yodh >
2
7
Kaph
10
201
Lamedh | 30
10]
200
242
Points as guides to pronunciation
As characters of similar shape may be confounded, some features of difference are explained in the following remarks.
2
BETH, with a rounded stem at
~ a
KAPH has a curved line at the side that rests on a shorter
TAv has a rounded angle at the
the upper right angle, rests
on along, flat base which projects on the right.
base-line that does not project to the right.
upper right side, and a knob at lower end of left line.
}
)
ZAYIN has a short top line that projects slightly over the long
stem.
VAvV also has a short top line,
but it does not project at all over the stem.
h|
GIMEL has an upright slanting
3
Nun has an upright line that does not project: it meets a short base-line and does not make a sharp point at the right.
a
TETH has a flat base joined to two lines, a curve at right, a knob at left.
= DALETH isa right angle, flat at
D
Mem has right stem curved ; the
is
a
MEM FINAL is nearly square at
pears at its right and does not project over its stem.
2
SAMEK has a much shorter base-line.
line that projects by the side of the base-line, which leaves & small angle at the right.
the top, projecting over its vertical stem to the right.
|
Resu,
of a
similar
form,
“rounded at the angle that ap-
"|
KAPH FINAL, like Daleth, has
ha |
HE
f
nM
Nun FINAL is unlike Zayin in having a very long and slight1 bent stem and no projecon.
a projecting angle at top, but
hasa onger descending stem.
has two
stems,
slight!
thickened; the one at the left
¥
CHETH has two stems, each one
Y
is disconnected.
connected to the flat line at the top.
left is dthaka ectedt ie ihe. Ae, Wien
& nO” Bh
ine MOP
the base-line at right hand.
AYIN has two knobby stems sloping to a base-line inclining to left. TSADHE, with similar knobby
stems, meets a base-line that is horizontal.
TSADHE FINAL has a long
ver-
tical stroke at the junction of two stems.
The point Daghesh ¢ is cast within the body of
certain letters to modify their pronunciation.
The
point Mappigq - (of same form) is put in the letter -) (He final) to make it retain its harshness as a consonant.
Raphe ~ is a small dash (rarely used),
but on a higher plane, that gives an aspirated sound to the letter below.
Maqqeph - (of same
form) is used as a hyphen to join words together. These are all the characters absolutely needed for
Accents and Masoretic points
243
the proper rendering of an ordinary word or line of Hebrew, but for grammatical and theological
works many accents must be provided.
These
accents are cast on small bodies and are placed above or below the type of the text. ACCENTS PLACED UNDER CONSONANTS | Silluq, only at the end of the verse, therefore always followed by: Sophpasuq, which stands between the single verses. 4 Athnach, always in the midst of a verse. < Yethibh (always to the right of the
vowel).
.
y Tebhir.
4 Merkha. /” Double-Merkha. 4 Munach. < Mahpakh (to the left the vowel). s Darga. y Yarach. ¢ Tiphcha final.
of
| Metheg, sign of tone
f Tiphcha initial.
(to the left of the vowel).
ACCENTS PLACED ABOVE CONSONANTS
*. Segholta. > Zaqeph-qgaton. 1: Zaqeph-gadhol. ¢ Rebhia. «o
Zarqa.
) ) $ v QP
Qadma. Pashta. Shalsheleth. Paser. Qarne-phara.
> Q f «w
Great-Telisha. Little-Telisha. Géaresh. Double-Garesh.
ACCENTS OF TWO PARTS THAT BELONG TOGETHER: ONE ABOVE AND THE OTHER BELOW CONSONANTS <
y
Merkha mahpakhatum.
\ Merkha sargatum.
< Mahpakh sargqatum. MARKS OF PUNCTUATION >: Soph-pasuq, separating verses.
| Pesiq, between the words.
— Maqgeph, hyphen, aloft,
between the words.
MASORETIC POINTS OR VOWELS
The Masoretic points or vowels, ten in number, five long, or perfect, and five short, or imperfect, are represented by small strokes or points placed above, below, or within the consonants.
Examples
244
Vowel-points and consonants
of their uses in connection with the letter Beth
(3 5) are given below. Long Vowels under the Consonants
Kamets _ = a asin bar! 2 or o as in bone 2 Tsaray ., =a as in bale? 2 or e as in bed! Chirek (long when followed by Yodh) . =i as
in bijou 2 Long Vowel above the Consonants
Cholem * or § = 0 as in bowl! $3 or ow as in bow ? (curtsy) Long Vowel within the Letter
Shurek } = u as in Buddha }5 Short Vowels under the Consonants Pathach _= a as in bar.
When followed by
an unvocalized Yodh ° it forms with the latter the
diphthong ai, pronounced like i in bite 2 Pathach furtive _ is a Pathach occurring only under the letters |, 7], and Y, when the letters oc-
cur at the end of a word, and is pronounced before
the consonant under which it is placed.
Segol _ = e as in bet
=
Chirek (short) . =i as in bin 2 Kamets Chatuph _ = 0 as in son or bone 2 Kibuts . = u as in bull 2 1 According to Spanish and Portuguese pronunciation. 2 According to German pronunciation. The other vowels are pronounced alike.
The lay of cases for Hebrew
245
SHEVAS
The following Shevas, used here beneath a Cheth
(Fj), denote that a vowel is wanting.
Sheva (simple) _
as rn
Chataph Pathach_ asM=a Chataph Segol ...
as MJ=e
Chataph Kamets _, as Sj = o The last three are short vowels to which the Sheva (simple [3] ) is joined, and are known as compound
Shevas. Hebrew is read from right to left.
To give to the
characters this sequence in print, the types must be reversed after they have been set.
The com-
positor begins as he does with English, by setting the characters at the left hand of his copy, turning
the nicks of the type inward to face the composingrule.
When the hne has been spaced and justified
(wide spacing is preferred), turn the line in the stick. If accents are to be added, justify them in a separate line in their proper places.
Hebrew is laid in the cases by many different
schemes, but the scheme here exhibited is the one generally accepted by most of the compositors in
America.
The characters without points, most
used, are in the lower case; accents, finals, broad letters, and letters with points are in the upper case.
246
Cases for composition of Hebrew
RPT
AVS
n
Wi TAL ala
&
Nia),
1/4
RAS So|Sl mn
DI TIAT
SlOlall
sr}
>]
3
P| 5]
B| i
i
sale<|alole]eo
ul}olyl|sai|azie]s
DIA|y
wiv wivle
1/4
Cela
hey ei
—
I \
Hebrew upper case.
— 3)
2
“
} = "
a)
}
Y rk
4
A
ia)
,
UW
a
y
[slp
0
&
4
|0] 3 rehe
Ovads | Goats
3 UjCiyt
ne
=]
Hebrew lower case.
The accents are useful as notes for chanting, or to show nice distinctions in the meanings of words. They have to be separately composed and justified for attachment to the proper character.
For the
most part, the accents are centred over or under
the characters, but when a character has a long leg or stem the accent should be under the leg.
The letters of the German language
247
A word in Hebrew cannot be divided by a hyphen
so that one part shall be in one line and the other part in the next line.
To prevent this fault, and to
maintain more evenness in the spacing of words,
six Hebrew letters are made of greater width: Aleph
Y
He
Cheth
Pm
Lamedh
>»
Mem
odo
Tav
FT
The characters here shown are the ones used for
all ordinary printing in Hebrew.
There are other
forms, known as Rabbinic and German-rabbinic. Hebrew running-hand is of much simpler form, in
which letters with curved lines are substituted for
the angled letters, but it can be read and put in type by those only who understand the language.
GERMAN
The German alphabet has nominally twenty-six
capital letters, but the same character serves for I
and J.
The capitals 9, ©, and It have the umlaut
attached to indicate the sounds of ae, De, and we. The lower-case series is increased by a distinct
character for j, and by the addition of thirteen double letters.
A font of German has no small
capitals, and the use of italic is obviated by the hair-spacing of emphasized words, or by selecting for these words a type of a much bolder or an en-
tirely different face.
248
German upper- and lower-case letters The German alphabet.
Capitals
Lowercase
Capitals
Lowercase
Name
op
Bey Tsey
Oo
aAwPe
—n ee oA
“a
Ah
Dey
MOS
og
ho
Ey Ef
Gey Hah E
Yot
Soyo
Em
En OB
SZ EONS
yo om
Kah
El
O
Om
Pey
Koo
PROVO
Air
a
Oo
<
Fow
KZ
Vey
Nid
HM SEACH NH
ws
CEHBES HNSNICOSYZTMAE MNGRNROARBS
egoscer tnmertaowos
rtMmm
Ess Tey
Iks
Ypsilon Tset
Distinctions of shape in German letters
249
To the hasty observer some German letters are not sufficiently distinct. To prevent mistakes in selection, the differences between similar characters are here pointed out. $8
B has a central cross-stroke
K
V has no connecting cross-
that connects the two stems.
stroke, and shows an open
b
b has its shorter stem united to the longer stem. at its
foot-line.
b
h is not so united, and has a
(G
Bibby Brom Ns Shorter stems E has a short side-stroke pro- f
f has a short central stroke that crosses the upright
G
G has
space between stems.
CRE
S
eet eee ay
jecting from the middle of
this short stem. two
rounded
stems
connected at the base-line, and a curved upright stroke
between them.
S is another rounded letter, but the curved stroke within has a horizontal extension
and does not connect.
KR
K has a curved hair-line pro-
N
N has two stems connected at the head, but not at the foot.
R
f
hair-line that projects below the foot-line.
thick stem.
s hasa projecting spur on the left side only of the thick
stroke.
m
w
TMhas three stems connected at the top and disconnected
at the foot-line. w has three stems also.
at the foot-line.
jection at its top, and its two
middle.
vt
R has its two stems connected r
left side of the stem at its
foot. x has a long hair-line on the
left side of the stem at its
in the middle.
WM
M has stems that are connected at the head and not connected on the foot-line.
IV
W has stems that are con-
yt)
nected on the foot-line as )
but
the latter two are connected
foot, which the r has not.
v has its two stems connected at the top and at the foot.
y has stems connected at the
well as on the head.
top only; its right stem
projects below the foot.
Although t and j are of the same form in capitals, the lower-case | projects below the foot-line,
as it does in English.
The lower-case { is used at
the beginning and in the middle of words, but the
final 8 is always of short form.
250 1
Cases for composition of German Sit
ti iis ia
a|s — | —
| ae
1
4/8/€)/Dd\E€| s/o
ee} mi R/O H/9/K)}
]|//P/Q/R/ Si zi sis ee
ee
2
L
=.
German upper case as laid in the United States.
alolaldj alr j —— §
uw 8
wen
,
b
m
n
1] 2] 3[4]s5]6]7
a
:
i
5
Py
0
a
0
a
’
€
¢)9/9g
ft}0
Aeimi-
ojo
|
3]:
r
rik
a”
I
t
CJ
German lower case as laid in the United States.
The thirteen double letters of German are: d&
ch
ffi
ffi
fi
si
ft
d
ck
fl
fi
ff
ss
f
sz
uw
ffi
ssi
§
tz
fi
fi
ff
ff
st
Peculiarities of composition in German
251
In the United States the ordinary upper and lower
eases that are used for English are made to serve for the casing of German type.
The scheme pre-
sented on the preceding page is that of the arrangement in many book-printing houses where German is used only for occasional words or quoted lines. In Germany the characters for a complete font are laid in one broad case of peculiar construction. ! The accent most used is the umlaut over vowels
d, 8, and ll. German nouns, common as well as proper, take capitals for initial letters, but adjec-
tives derived from proper nouns, as a rule, do not
take the capital.
The words frankfurtisch, eng-
lisch, preussisch, for Frankfortish, English, and Prussian, do not take capitals, but when such ad-
jectives form part of compound proper names, as in
Schwarze Meer (Black Sea), they do take a capital. Frederick the Second takes capitals in Friedrich
der Zweite. The first personal pronoun, ich, begins
with a small i, but the person addressed, Sie, or you, takes a capital. Words are divided with the same irregularity that now prevails in English.
The scholarly writer
prefers to divide a word by its derivation ; the ordinary writer, by its pronunciation.
One practice is
fixed: some double letters cannot be divided; the
doubled consonant at the end of a line, as in hbei-ffen
or Gii-ffe, is always put over in the second line. ! For the plan of this case, see Weber’s Katechismus der Buchdruckerkunst, p. 53, 16mo, Leipsic, 1901.
252
Faces of German type
Hyphens are employed in great profusion for the compounding of words when these words are used as a long phrase or a qualifier. The apostrophe is frequently used, especially in poetry, to indicate a suppressed vowel. Quotation-marks in German are made at the beginning of the quotation with two comma-like
marks that project below the line, and at its end
by the same marks inverted, which are then at the
top of the line.
The apostrophe is never used for
~ a quote-mark.
Arabic figures are as common in German as in English, but for emphasis the italic character is
studiously avoided, yet is sometimes used as a mark of reference.
AVBCDEFGHTFKEMNOPOR abecbefghijilmnopqrstuyvwry Fraktur.
ABCDESHGHIRELMUOPA abcdefaghijflmnopqrstuvw Schwabacher.
n g mnopgrstu hef Gif kl aGc German text.
Use of roman letter in Germany
253
These characters are strictly and almost exclusively
German, but German type-founders make many
other forms.
The spurs and angles of black-letter
favor the invention of eccentric variations, which
have always been in favor with job-printers everywhere.!
Flemish black-letter is occasionally used
for display lines in some kinds of book-work.
GBEDEGGHIZSGEWUO
aBcdcefabijklmnopgrstuvowr Old Flemish black used by Caxton.
ABCBDECFSHIKAMNOYPCKRSACAYM Ws abcdefgbithimnopgqrsturwrpszhiflifnre. iss Modern Flemish black.
The roman character, known in Germany as the Antiqua, is preferred for the printing of scientific
books. The regular German letter, used in newspapers and for ordinary books, is known as Fraktur. The lower-case characters of the Fraktur are much compressed: the ordinary lower-case alpha-
bet measures only about ten ems of its own body; roman lower-case of the same body by British and American standards measures thirteen ems.
A
broader and simpler form of German character is known as Schwabacher.
This tendency to simphi-
fication is increasing; many of the faces recently produced by German founders for text types are 1 See Chapter X of Plain Printing Types.
254
German script
much more distinct than those in fashion during the last century. A careful compositor who does not understand
the German alphabet can fairly represent it in type when he has printed copy, but it is not wise for him
to attempt to set type from German manuscript, for its script is unusually bewildering. GERMAN SCRIPT
Abu
CL Le Se f- uff Fy
pep peat ti me a
ep Gp Ae ape Us ds 0 o
p
Tt
(Wa Wow % Fr A Vv
Diphthonge
Joined letters
ww
2
e
wu
8s
CED
U
ou
VII
MAKING UP The running title. . . Signatures. . . Notes and illustrations
EFORE the making up of type from galleys is attempted, the
maker-up should have for his instruction a diagram of one page, which should be pendrawn upon a regular section,
properly folded, of the paper that will be used for printing the book.
On the
first leaf of this section should be outlined in exact
position the length and width of the page to show the margins required; written directions should be added concerning signatures, types for running
title, subheadings, the sinkage of chapter heads, the blank space above and below extracts, and all other details about which there may be uncertainty. This diagram should be approved by the author. 255
256.
Gauge for length ofpages
The first duty of the maker-up is to cut and notch a gauge of cherry reglet to the length of the page ordered.
The gauge should be a full page of the
regular text type only (without cuts, extracts, tables, or blank lines), upon which should be written the
number of regular lines.
The lines on every page
should be in exact register with corresponding lines
on the back of that page, but this nicety may not be attained if the proper marking of important divisions on the gauge has been neglected.
33 lines of type, including head- and foot- lines.
Gauge for making up pages.
In most printing-houses making up is done from |
the type that has been read and corrected on the galleys.!
Before cutting the gauge for pages in-
tended to be printed direct from type, ascertain
the length of the furniture in stock that will be needed for the gutters of the back margins.
Each
page of type should be a little longer than the gutters, but when the gutters in stock are only a trifle
longer, the foot-line should be set in a larger size 1 A book or pamphlet ordered in great haste may have to be made up before its reading and correction, but this method is not to be recommended. If any compositor has made a very long out or doublet, or if the author
chooses to add new or to cancel old matter upon the proof of the made-up page, every page following in that chapter will have
to be re-made up.
This means an unnecessary waste of time and serious expense.
Measurement of matter comes first
257
of quadrats that will make the page project a trifle
beyond the gutter. This forethought may prevent the needless cutting of furniture.' The galleys of composed type that will be needed for the making up of a full form of letterpress should be assembled in front of or near to the maker-up before he begins his work. These galleys should be accompanied with the copy and proof, as well as the cuts, tables, maps, or any other irregularity that may be needed intheform.
When there
are no such irregularities to an even make-up as
are produced by cuts and tables, the maker-up can approximately measure and mark off on the proof the proper length for each page before he begins to
separate the composed matter, but he must regulate its division so that the last short line of a paragraph in a descriptive text shall not appear as the first line
on a new page.
In this position the short line is
a blemish to be prevented.
Poetry and short dia-
logue matter are unavoidable exceptions. When it is required that a pamphlet of one or
two sheets shall consist of or not exceed the prescribed number of pages, it may be necessary to shorten or lengthen the page.
For this possible
departure from written instructions on the folded
pattern sheet, explanation must be made to and permission for change be had from the foreman. The space occupied by composition must be carefully computed, and the matter must be arranged 1 See illustration on page 63. 17
258
Needed materials to be accessible
and divided so that it can be kept within the limit. In matter on galley, leads or blanks can be added when it is necessary to drive out, or they can be
withdrawn with facility when the matter has to be taken in; but if pages are made up unthinkingly,
without some previous calculation of the space to be occupied, they will have to be made up anew.
The maker-up is measurably responsible for the justification of composition passed by him. If he finds that it has been slackly justified, or if type has been set up in an unworkmanlike manner, he should return the galley to the compositor in fault, and require him to amend it. The maker-up should be in an alley where he has. ready access to leads of different thickness, quadrats of different bodies, brass rules of graduated length, and to quotations, or electrotyping bearers, and all needed kinds of blanking-out materials.
The running titles, foot-lines, and blanks that are
required for one full form should be set before
making up begins, and be placed on small galleys within easy reach.
It wastes time to set them sep-
arately during the process if making up. A quarto galleyof brass
with a low rim should
be preferred for maki. nary page.
The page
strong, and long enough
times, is first placed the page, and is
rround the page four
e
outer lower corner of
the left hand while it is successively stretched with
Composition to be on its feet increasing tightness around the four corners.
209 The
free end of the cord is made secure by thrusting it
between the tightened cord and the type with the nib of the composing-rule, in a loop at the place of © its beginning, and drawing the loop tightly toward
the near corner.
The free end of this cord must
be left exposed upon the face of the page, so that
it can be easily seized and unwound by the stoneman when he has protected each page in the form with surrounding furniture.
Quadrats with nicks at the ends of the foot-line
should have the nicks turned inward to allow a free up-and-down movement of the page cord.
The
nib of the composing-rule can be used to push the
cord up and down at diagonally opposed corners
to increase the tightness of the cord and give it a broader bearing against the centre. Each lift of type put upon the make-up galley should be pressed upward and compacted sidewise
to make the composition square and solid. [If this is not done, the type may be tilted slightly or made
260
Odd and even pages
up “off its feet.” stone or press.
This fault is hard to rectify on
The page of type off its feet is sure
to make a faulty electrotype plate.
The copy and the proof should be continually
before the maker-up, who must see that the beginning of each paragraph in type tallies with the same
paragraph in copy.
To neglect this precaution is
to hazard the risk of an omitted or a transposed paragraph. Making up includes much more than the division
of matter in pages of uniform length.
The maker-
up is required to set the running titles, with their paging figures, blank lines, and foot-lines, to adjust
the variable width of the blanks, properly to place
notes, tables, extracts, illustrations, and finally to put the made-up pages in proper order upon the
stone.
In some printing-houses he is required also
to set chapter headings and subheadings.
THE
RUNNING TITLE
The pages known to bibliographers as recto and verso are respectively called by printers odd and even.
The figures for odd pages, as 1, 3, 5, 7, etce.,
are set at the end of the line; the even pages, 2, 4,
6, 8, etc., are set at the beginning of the line.
The
white line that separates the running title from the
text, as well as the foot-line at the end of the page, is often composed with quadrats of the type of the text, but when the running title has been
‘Paging figures
261
ordered in small capitals over a text of large type, the white line so made will be found too wide, and a narrower blank will be more approved.
In some
recent books of good workmanship two leads only
are used in place of the white line. The words and the type for the running title at
the head of every page are usually determined by the author.
When this running title is a summary
of the contents of the page, which cannot be written
before the page has been made up, it 1s customary to set up a quadrat line with paying figures only
and to ask the author to write the running title on the proof of the made-up page.
Some books are ordered without paging figures in the running title.
Paging is made with small
figures in the foot-line, where they may be an annoyance to the gatherers of the folded sections by
confusing the figures of the signature with those of the page.
The thin figures that are cast upon the
en body may not be sufficiently legible.
When it
can be done, distinctive figures should be selected,
that cannot be confounded with the signatures.
—16—
(362)
+£468%
[17]
When there is no running title, the paging figures may be put in the centre of the head-line in the type of the text.
It is not an improvement to
inclose them in brackets or parentheses, or to add
to the figures dashes or decoration of any kind.
262
Illustrations of running titles
Paging figures on a smaller or larger body than that of the text type may be justified in and made
solid with the quadrat line below them by the use of a properly selected thin space.
The large figure
for paging is generally preferred.
Quadrats are
better for the blank line below the running title; two leads may be allowed, but three or more tend to make composition spongy. Some pages need no running title.
It is never
placed over a chapter heading or over a full-width
illustration that appears at the head of the page, but the paging figure that is needed should be put in the foot-line.
In centring a running title, pag-
ing figures must be rated as blanks or quadrats. In some books the selection of type for the running title is left to the maker-up, who should find variety enough in the different sizes and faces of
roman and italic capitals or lower-case.
Black-
letter may be occasionally selected to advantage.
Monotype and light-faced antiques are permitted in running titles that may receive undue wear, but ornamental types and pen-drawn lettering are never acceptable to the discreet publisher. CARMEN
65
For dainty little books very small capitals were once in high favor, but when the word was short and over a page of type of a body three or four sizes
larger, the running title in this style was feeble.
—
Illustrations of running titles
263
Thin spaces make the running title of small capitals
a little clearer, but the figures for pages are usually too small, and the cross-rule underneath does not compensate for this feebleness.
In the running
title of many words, thin spacing of small capitals is impossible, and unspaced small capitals are not easily read, nor is the effectiveness of a running title in small capitals improved by selecting full
capitals as initials for important words. Small capitals of pica are small enough for an octavo page. The running title of one word only may be in capitals of the text or of one or two sizes larger.
64
VOLTAIRE
The spacing out of the letters of a short word until it fills the measure is one of the many freaks of modern practice that have been found attractive in
advertising pamphlets, but it is not commendable in the running title of any library book.
Vv
oO
L
TF
A
IT
R
EE
Running titles that indicate the subject-matter of each page are most acceptable in the lower-case italic of the text.
Capital letters may be used in
a running title of lower-case for its first letter and for strictly proper names, but not as emphasis for important words.
Italic larger than the text may
be used with advantage on a large page, but an italic
of smaller body than the text type is never pleasing.
264
Illustrations of running tiles
64.
THE INVENTION OF WRITING A running title with more words than can be crowded in one line must be divided to appear on two facing pages. When the chapter ends upon an even page, a condensation of the title matter should be supplied by the author.
462
HISTORY OF ENGLAND
(Cu. XV
Standard histories often have their running titles in full capitals on a body two sizes smaller than that of the text. Specifications of chapter or of date are sometimes added.
176
ZEAL AND IMPRUDENCE
Cu. XXIII
In other histories the mention of the chapter, book, or canto is made a shoulder-note to line with the first line of text, but this is done to best advantage on pages that have side-notes.
66
A
SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY
When the text type is leaded, the running title may be thin-spaced with good effect, but avoid em quadrats.
78
BABYLONIAN LEGEND Italic capitals are not a wise choice, for some of their types are kerned and liable to break, and some letters do not neatly mate with other letters. They often show gaps and unequal inclinations that are unsightly.
86
MOLINOS THE QUIETIST Another novelty in running titles is the placing of the words close up to the back margin of each page.
Illustrations of runming titles
265
EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS
65
The division of over-long matter for the running title should not mangle phrases. Closely related words should be kept together, even if one word only appears on one page. A long word should never be divided with a hyphen.
1689
WILLIAM AND MARY
463
Sometimes the specification of the number of the chapter, book, or canto in the running title, at the end of the line, is needlessly fenced off with brackets.
A.D.
OF THE
CHRISTIANS
177
362
If side-notes are used, the page figure should extend over them. If it can be done, keep the specification of chapter over the side-notes, but it is not an improvement to separate it from notes with a three-em brace or dash.
THROUGH
FRANCE
AND
ITALY
67
A wide-spaced running title over a compactly set page of text makes an unpleasing contrast.
OF
THE
CREATION
19
In this illustration the unsightly gaps have been concealed to some extent by judicious spacing. A wider spacing is not recommended. It should never be forgotten that spaces between letters should compel wider spaces between words.
MOLINOS THE QUIETIST This method of treating the running title may be used with black-letter.
87
266
Illustrations of running titles
832
The MEMOIRS of Boox VIII.
‘This facsimile of the running title of a London book of the early eighteenth century fairly exhibits the taste of carly printers in the selection of type and the use of rules,
EEE
ae
18
PRINTING
MODERN
SEE ‘Thick-faced rules, apparently first used by the Strawberry Hill Press, and afterward more boldly by the Lee Priory
Press, have been recently revived.
They seem an attempt
on the part of the printer to compel attention to subjectmatter that would otherwise pass unnoticed. It is the imitation in print of an obsolete school of elocution, in
which the orator was taught to change his voice from whispers to shrieks, and to give the greatest emphasis to
Les orures Sothiques:
Black-letter in the running title
should bealways a face
of true old style to make it acceptable to the bookish reader.
Tllustrations of running titles
Chap. VI. PurtirdeComines.
267
833
In the displayed circular or advertisement, dashes are commendable, but they are of doubtful value in a serious book. ‘The eye is wearied with their continued monotony.
————————S———SSS
The Correct SrytzE
19
ee trivial words. The speaker compelled attention, but he soon tired his hearers. ‘This attempt at display, entirely proper in a handbill, advertisement, or tradesman’s cireular, is not really needed in any book. It may attract, but it irritates. Black dashes ordered by the publisher must be inserted as directed, but the compositor will make a
serious mistake if he inserts them without order. Italic, lower-case, and small capitals are here needlessly combined.
deures de Dimon Wostre
75
‘The modern amateur who prefers straight lines and plain types
should not authorize in one line a mixing of capitals,
small capitals, italic, and lower-case types that would not be tolerated in one line of descriptive matter in the text.
of an English Opium-Gater
243
‘Modern designs of black-letter, ornamented or with marked eccentricities, are forbidden by publishers of library books.
268
Make-up of short chapters
The space to be allowed for the sinkage of a chapter heading, as well as for the width of blanks above and below a table or a quoted extract in the text,
is fairly indicated by the general direction to set solid or leaded.
Blanks may be wide in leaded
but should be narrow in solid matter.
162
1‘Trimalchio’s Dinner
Lower-case of roman has some favor as a proper selection for running titles. The size selected is usually larger than the type of the text. It is not improved by hair-spacing.
When great compactness is ordered, a new chap-
ter may closely follow the end of the preceding chapter, as is practised in making up the Bible.
If
a foregoing chapter ends a few lines above the foot of the page, it will be necessary to make more lines in previous pages by overrunning, wider spacing,
and driving over the last lines of paragraphs, or by a new re-making up that slightly increases the blanks between the chapters.
These methods will
bring the end of the faulty chapter to the foot of the page, yet they may make a new difficulty in the compactly set book of short chapters.
To begin a
new chapter flush with the first text line of the
page does not make that page pleasing, but there are occasions when this treatment cannot be avoided.
When this happens, it is customary to emphasize
Usefulness of signatures
269
the irregularity by putting one more blank line over the new chapter.
aeseseseses ARCHIV FUR BUCHGEWERBE egegeseseses A running title with black decorations on either side and with cross-rules above and below is thereby made insignificant. This treatment compels the paging figures to be put in the foot-line, but consistency requires that they should be obscured with side decoration of similar peculiarity. Decoration pleases more when it is lighter than letters.
When a new maker-up has to continue the un-
finished work of a predecessor, he must carefully examine the proof and copy of the type already made up, and make sure that the work he is about to do is its proper continuation. SIGNATURES
Bookbinders need signatures as guides to the or-
derly arrangement of the different sections of the 1To the inexperienced the the page did not seem to require making up of composed type in the division of a cut or a table. pages of uniform length seems These are a few of the many simple work. It would be sim- annoyances that delay making ple if the copy had words enough up. They require the continual and no more, without head-band, exercise of forethought and the synopsis, or initial, to fill neatly adaptation of means to ends in the first page of the chapter; if many ways that cannot be prothere were words enough to vided for by any arbitrary rule. allow that chapter to end in the Some of these irregularities are middle of an even page; if the too difficult for the maker-up; last short line of a paragraph they have to be adjusted by the did not occasionally appear at author, who often has to add the head of a new page; if the new lines or cancel lines already gauge that defines the length of set to make asightly page.
270
Signatures governed by sections
book.
Paging figures in the upper corner of the leaf
are unhandily placed for the convenience of the gatherer, who needs the guide at the foot of the
leaf, where the section is first seized.
The sequence
of guide-marks made by alphabetical letters, or by figures following in numerical order,is more quickly
seen than the sequence of page figures that have to be compared with the pages of a preceding section.
American printers prefer arabic figures for signatures, for they can be protracted indefinitely for
the largest book, but British printers prefer alphabetical letters, and add to them a new specifying figure when the letter has to be repeated.
Follow-
ing the usage of early printers, the letters J, V, and
W are never selected for signatures. The number of pages allowed for a section and
its signature is governed largely by the thickness
of the paper to be printed: for very thick paper,
eight pages; for the ordinary thickness of book paper, sixteen pages. The double twelves of twenty-
four pages can be used with safety only on very thin
paper, and their insettings of eight pages (usually a cut-off, separately folded) take a star after each repeated signature. Sheets of four pages folio and of twelve pages are selected only when the form 1 In many old books the sig-
nature of a section of sixteen pages was repeated on some of the following leaves. B was the proper signature for the first text page, Bi for the third page, Bii for the fifth, B iii for the
seventh, with intent to show to the folder the proper position of consecutive leaves. These additional signatures for the inner leaves of a section, inserted as helps to unpractised folders, are no longer used.
Unwise neglect of signatures
271
has to be printed upon a paper of peculiar quality, size, or shape.
Publishers and bookbinders prefer
sheets of eight or sixteen pages, for they permit neater folding and sewing.
Too many pages in a
section of very thick paper create wrinkles in the central folds, und too few pages in a section of thin paper make the back bunchy with thread. Every book of more than one sheet has a signa-
ture-mark in the foot-line of each completed section. If the section has an inset, cut off and separately folded and inserted, this cut-off inset should take
the same figure as its outset, with the addition of a star, thus: outset 2, inset 2*.
When the book
makes two or more volumes, the number of the
volume must be specified in the signature-line, as" in Vol. II, 2.
The numerals defining the volume
should be in capitals,! so that they may not be confounded with the arabic figures of the signature. When page figures and signatures cannot be used,
and when the text lines are of uneven length, as in
poetry, and blanks are of uneven height, as in forms of prefatory matter, all the customary guides for exact folding have been removed. 1 One of the new fashions in book-making is the neglect of a signature-mark in the foot-line. Some authors order it in a separate line about an inch below the regulation foot-line ; others omit it entirely, but
this
omission
makes added expense and gives needless trouble to all the workmen from compositor to book-
binder. It is admitted that the appearance of the page is not improved by the signature in the
foot-line, but its entire omission is dangerous, especially so when paging figures also have been
omitted. More than ordinary care will have to be given to the gathering of the signatures to prevent disorderly arrangement.
272 Numbered
Table of signatures and folios Folio
tures ' 4 Pages |
1
1
2
5
4
13
3
9
8 pages
17
235
5
17
33
6 7
21 23
41 49
33
65
8
29
10
37
9
11
12 13 14 15
16
41
45 49 53 57
61
|
1 |
8
|
|
57
73
one
Lettered
12 pages | 16 pages : 24 pages
tures
=~
7
49
65
97
E
61 73
81 97
121 145
F G
129
193
85
113
«109
145
97
133 145 157 169
121
;
49
C
D
169
H
217
K
241
I
L
177 193 209 225
265 289 313 337
M N
181
241
361
Q
O P
R 8 T
229
257 273 289
305
385 409 433
241 253 265
321 337 353
481 505 529
289
385
577
2B
233
301 313 325 337
349
401 417 433 449
601 625 649 673
2C 2D 2E 2F
241 249
361 373
481 497
721 745
2H _2T
193 205 217
21 22 23
81 85 89
25
97
93
185
277
26 27 28 29 30
101 105 109 113
117
201 209 217 225
31 32
121 125
24
49
A
B
33
161 169 177
77
25
81 | 121 | 161
89 97 105 113
1
17
25
37
129 137 145
20
1)
1
13
65 69 73
17 18 19
Octas. o
Twelves
Quarto
153
193
|
369
465
457
5953
697
U
X Y Z
2A
2G
Table of signatures and folios Num-
P
berea
Folio
Quarto
.
Twelv es
Octavo
tures | * Pages | 8 pages | 12 pages | 16 pages
33 34 35
129 133 137
257 265 273
36
141
281
38
149
40
toclvee
513 529 545
421
561
297
445
593
gs9
157
41 42
161 165
44 45
173 177
46
181
48 49 50
189 193
197
377 385 393
565 577
51 52 53 54 55
201 205 209 213 217
401 409 417 425 433
56 57 58 59
221 225 929 233
60
145
153
39
169
43
289
433
577
Let-
terrea
24 pages | tures
385 397 409
37
273
769 793 817
| 2K | 2L | 2M
841 | 2N
865
| 20
| 2P
913 | 2Q
313
457
469
609
625
937 | 2R
321 329
481 493
641 657
961 | 28 985 | 2T
345 353
517 529
689 705
305
337
361
505
541
673
721
1009
1033 1057 1081
1105
| 2U
| 2X | 2Y | 2Z
| 3A
553
737
589
785
1129 1153 1177
601 613 625 637 649
801 817 834 849 865
1201 1225 1249 1273 1297
| 3E | 3F | 3G | 3H | 3I
441 449 457 465
661 673 685 697
881 897 913 929
1321 1345 1369 1393
{3K | 3L | 3M | 3N
237
473
709
945
1417
| 30
61
94]
481
721
961
1441
| 3P
62
245
489
733
977
1465
| 3Q
185
47
63 64
249 253 18
369
497 505
745 757
753 769
993 1009
1489 1513
| 3B | 3C
| 3D
| 3R | 38
274
Pages should be symmetrical
New guides for exact folding can be produced by inserting in the centre of the gutters (as between pages 1-8 on the half-sheet of octavo, and in the head-bolts between pages 1-4 on the same sheet) a short bit of hair-line rule, which will definitely mark the places where the sheet should be creased for folding.
The printed guides so made will be
hidden in the book by sewing, or will be cut off at
the head or front by trimming.! When the number of pages for a full form has been made up, the maker-up should plainly mark on the proof and on the copy before him the last
word in the form.
This mark is needed by the
reader and by the maker-up who may follow him. A table of signatures is of some service to the maker-up, but it must not be trusted unthinkingly.
The book made up, for the greater part, in sections of sixteen pages may have here and there sections of more or less pages, so made by printing one sec-
tion out of order, or by the use of a different kind of paper for maps or illustrations. When the imposing-stone is free, the maker-up puts his made-up pages thereon in proper position for the stoneman.
If the stone is not free, he puts
them in a wrapper of stout waste paper, and stows
them in piles as may be directed by the foreman. A page of text is trim, square, and symmetrical
when its first and last lines are of full width.
The
short line that ends a paragraph is tolerated at the 1 See Scheme 19 on page 353.
Treatment of hindrances
275
foot of a page, but it is a blemish when it appears
as the first text line of a new page.
Even the be-
ginning of a new paragraph, with its slight inden-
tion of one em, at the foot or the head of a page is rated as a fault by the critical.
As the maker-up
cannot add or cancel words or transpose lines, it is impossible to avoid these faults in some measures of poetry, in short dialogue matter, or in any kind of composition that has to be made up in haste. Yet this fault can be amended in some kinds of composition, when time is allowed, by the observance of the following methods.
To prevent a short line at the head of a page, these expedients are often adopted: (1) Take out a line from the space allowed for the chapter head, and re-make up all the following pages until the objectionable line falls at the foot of the page. This is a tedious method, and it may cause a similar bad break upon another page.
(2) Pick out a
paragraph in any preceding page that could be
spaced thinner, so as to make it one line less, and thereby provide the room for a new line.
(3) Re-
verse the process: overrun a previous paragraph
with wide spacing that will make a new line, and so drive over the objectionable short line and make it the second line on a new page.
(4) Make the
page a line short or long; but the two pages that
face each other should be treated in the same man-
ner.
(5) Ask the author to add or cancel a word
in any paragraph that will prevent the short line.
276
Management of irregularities
In the strict reprint the last expedient is impossible.
When it is clearly unavoidable, as it is in some © forms of composition, as in an ode or in short dia-
logue matter, no attempt should be made at change, for the apparent fault carries with it its proper apology.
Another alleged fault in make-up is a divided
word broken with a hyphen on the first or last line of a page or a paragraph.
To try to correct this
fault by thin or wide spacing will make a much
greater fault. so.
In many lines it is impossible to do
It can be corrected wisely by the author only,
who can add, cancel, or substitute words that will prevent the use of the hyphen, but there are few authors who will take this trouble.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
Pages that must contain illustrations, long notes, or tables of irregular size present many difficulties. Author and reader prefer that these additions shall be on the same page as the explanatory text, or at When the page is small
least on a page facing it.
and the note is large, the note and the text interfere, and the maker-up is often puzzled to decide
the problem of precedence.
The last line of a
regularly made-up page may contain the reference-
mark for a long note, which cannot appear on that page, and must overrun on two or more pages.
When obstacles like these are foreseen, it is the
Placing offoot-nodtes
277
custom to send to the author clean galley proofs, marked to show the limits of each page and the
obstructiveness of the note or illustration.
It is
to be expected that the author will add new matter to close a gap, or cancel matter already set to prevent an unsightly break.
He is expected to cut up
the proofs and paste them in the order he prefers on the prepared paper within the prescribed lines. He may not be entirely successful, but he can give a clue to orderly treatment that will be helpful. When the irregularities in the text are tables or
notes of full width, the new arrangement desired ean be made by the author; but when these irregu-
larities are illustrations of small size and odd shape
that compel an overrunning of type that must be led down the side, the author’s calculations of the
space to be occupied by the type are seldom correct. His order for a make-up of matter is unavoidably
tentative and experimental.
The maker-up is often
obliged to make up the matter in a way differing from that of the author before it is finally approved. Foot-notes are often more annoying than cuts or
tables.
They must begin at the foot of the page
that contains in its text the mark of reference, but they may overrun two or three pages.
They can
be separated from the text by a white line, or by a short or long brass rule.
The white line is to be
preferred, for a hair-line rule of any length is ob-
jectionable because it is seldom properly electro-
typed and printed with uniform thickness of face.
278
Foot-notes that overrun
When the width will permit it, the general appear-
ance of the page will be improved by setting the notes in half-measure without the dividing brass rule. Each note should begin with the repetition of the reference-mark in the text. The marks furnished with the font of type are ungainly, but the
superior figures frequently used in their stead may be so small as to be objectionably indistinct. Long notes that overrun one page and appear on. more than two pages can be avoided by giving up the page that follows the reference entirely to the
note, but this treatment should not be attempted without the permission of the author. Foot-notes should follow one another in the order
indicated by the references in the text.
A third or
fourth note following a very long first note, all re-
ferred to on one page, can seldom be inserted on that page.
The first line of the first note must be kept
on that page, but its overrun must be transferred to the foot of the next page, and this transferred matter should be placed over the regular notes for the succeeding page, and be separated from them
by a thin white line. This unfortunate alternative is a clumsy procedure, but it can be avoided when
the author rewrites or rearranges the text and notes so that they can be kept near one another. In a page of two or more columns the notes of 1 Prosper Marchand’s History foot of the six following pages,
of the Origin of Printing (Paris,
and thatis further elucidated by
1740) has in its first chapter one thirty-four subnotes set in a difoverrun note that appears at the ferent measure.
Side-notes and abbreviations
279
a column may be kept at its foot, but when there are many notes in the last column that interfere
with the placing of a cut or table on the page, the notes may be putin the first column.
A side-note in the margin should begin opposite the first line of the paragraph referred to.
When
these notes are too many and too long, superior figures or letters have to be used to indicate the relation of text to note.
When the margin will allow, the side-note should be at a visible distance
from the text.
Side-notes are usually set in type three or four sizes smaller than that of the text.
Four picas is
a favorite width of measure for side-notes, but when notes are frequent and margins are wide,
the measure may be five or more picas.
A side-note
should not be indented, nor should its letters be hair-
spaced or its words wide-spaced to make full lines. Composition should be even at the beginning of every line, but may be irregular at its ending, both on the odd and the even pages.
Abbreviations are tolerated in side-notes that are not permissible in the text, but capitals should
not be used to give distinction to the initials of important words that are not proper nouns.
The names of books, papers, and documents cited in the text often appear in side-notes in italic.
This is not a wise selection, for italic letters have many kerns, and the kerns may break off in this exposed position.
280
Legend lines of illustrations
Cut-in notes are placed at the extreme end of the first, second, or third line of the paragraph.
When
they begin on the first line they give an unnecessary raggedness to the outline of the page.
The
width and height of a cut-in note must vary with
the fulness of the note, but the white space about each one should seem the same in all notes. To arrest the eye, the cut-in notes of educational
works are sometimes set in small sizes of antique
or condensed title.
The bolder face of these types
produces the desired distinction, but a critic may say that the change spots the page unpleasantly. For general use the ordinary cut of roman lower-
case of small body will prove most acceptable.
One of the features of a profusely annotated old
book was the inclosing of its text with notes on the top and side as well as at the foot, but this can be done with satisfaction only when the copy has been very carefully prepared by the author. The legend line or verbal description of a large illustration, often set by the maker-up, can be in many styles. An old method set the legend in small capitals of the text type (often too large for the words) in one or two lines. When small capitals of a smaller body were selected, the legend so treated became indistinct. When the legend line is followed by a more particular description, as in the numbers or letters that refer to anatomical illustrations, this minuter description may be ar-
ranged in columns and in a very small size of roman
Legends for full-page illustrations
281
lower-case. A very long legend of two or three lines of small capitals may be indented in half-diamond When it exceeds three lines hanging in-
fashion.
dention is a better choice.
|
A more approved style for the legend line is plain
roman lower-case of small size (about three sizes smaller than that of the text type), with capitals only for proper names and for the first letter of the line.
To capitalize its apparently important
words is to invite from author or publisher repeated changes of these capitals. Roman lower-case should be clear enough for the legend line without trying to aid that clearness by means of petty display of capital letters.
It is largely to prevent capricious
alteration in capitals that the printer prefers small
capital letters for this descriptive line.
Italic lower-case, gothic, and thin-faced antique, in capitals or lower-case, are occasionally selected to give to the legend line increased distinction, but
all types of display are of doubtful propriety in a The significance of the illustration
library book.
eannot be improved, but it can be damaged, with black or eccentric lettering.
The reader who does
not fully comprehend it with an unobtrusive legend line will not be aided by bold type. Illustrations that fill an entire page seldom need
to be described in bold types. In sumptuous books the legend of a full-page illustration is often printed on a separate leaf of transparent paper, to be attached facing the illustration, for there are many
282
Blank space about illustrations
engravers who protest against the insertion of any
type-work below the cut.!
Legend lines are usually centred, but when the illustration is of irregular shape, its legend may be
placed in a lower corner within any vacancy that promises a proper relief of white space, and the
plate may be slotted or mortised for its insertion. To prevent wear of type in this exposed position,
the legend line in very small type is sometimes put over a cut that must appear at the end of a page. Over a cut at the head of a page the customary
running title of that page should be suppressed. The blank space to be allowed above, below, or by the side of cuts or narrow tables must be governed by the general openness or closeness of the compo-
sition. For double-leaded type the blank should be not less than a great primer wide ; for very open com-
position two or even three picas may be used; for solid composition about one pica. An illustration is
damaged in appearance when it crowds the type of the text.’
When the cut is very small and compactness is 1 Although illustrators protest against explanatory legends in type at the foot or head of a fullpage cut as damaging to their work, they see no impropriety in affixing to the half-page illustrations of articles in magazines descriptive lines in letters of large size and uncouth form that belittle the cut as well as the types.
2 These remarks do not apply
to composition in black letter, ostensibly in the Morris style, which favors the jamming of type close to the initial and even against a broad engraved border; but this contraction of the relief of a needed white space should never be allowed in any composition of roman type that always needs much openness for its fair presentation.
Treatment ofprojecting matter
283
desired, type may be overrun and arranged on one
or both sides, but the setting of type in measures too narrow should be avoided, as in any blank less
than eight em quadrats of the text type, in which uneven spacing cannot be prevented. | Illustrations of irregular shape should be blocked on metal bodies and notched by the automatic machine recently invented for this purpose ; if blocked on wood and notched by the hand-saw and file, the wood may warp, the notches will be out of square,
and the types inserted in them are liable to work
off their feet. One of the modern methods of make-up is the placing of very small cuts or illustrations entirely
in the outer margin, where they will not obstruct the text. When it is ordered that two or more illustrations
shall project beyond the regular measure of the page in the margin of a letterpress form, all the pages of that form should be made up to the full
width of the widest page.
This can be done to best
advantage on the make-up galley.
A centring in
exact position of pages of different width can never
be done quickly, and rarely ever accurately, upon
the stone. If the pages are to be electrotyped, the blank
spaces above and below an illustration or a table (and indeed all the blanks) should be filled with
bearers to insure the making of a good mould.! 1See pages 73 and 74 of this book.
284
Treatmentof irregular illustrations
Illustrations of irregular shape that require types to be rearranged about them necessarily compel the overrunning of the composition.
This process
is always more tedious than the original composition, for the lines so treated mustdiffer in length
and may have to be repeatedly changed to prevent bad division or uneven spacing.
Before overrun-
ning is attempted, all alterations desired in the
text should be made on the galley proof.
To add
or cancel words after the type has been fitted to
the illustration and made up in pages will cost more than the original composition. To preserve decent uniformity in spacing, it may be necessary, even after overrunning, to ask the author to change one word for another to make a line longer or shorter.
The position of illustrations on a page is a ques-
tion of taste usually determined by the author, but
there is a general agreement as to the propriety of the following rules: A very small and narrow cut may be put in the
centre of the measure,
on each side, but the ty
with the type rearranged
re
| not permit decent , put the ent at one end of the
measure, 80 that the type will be on one side only.
‘Two or more cuts, not dependent on one another,
supeasing a gies eproa teencoe on ages that fees)
Position of cuts on the page
285
When it can be avoided, an illustration should be put on the page so that it will not back another illustration on the following page, for this backing of two cuts against each other increases the labor of presswork and may produce a “set-off” of black ink where it is not needed, to the damage of each
illustration. — The cut that is not wide enough to fill the measure, but that is too wide to have type put on one
side, may have its appearance improved by sur-
rounding it with a rule border.
A rule with face
about one point thick is better than the hair-line rule, especially if it is intended for a red-ink line. Parallel or concentric rules, one for black and one
for red ink, are finical niceties; it is difficult to print them on a large sheet in exact parallel.
Two illustrations of the same size that have been prepared as mates to face one another on Opposing pages should be made up to face with exactness.
Cuts that are not mates can be placed
at the head or side or foot of the page, to avoid the appearance of monotonous uniformity. When a cut of full width is put at the head of
the page, the running title and the folio figures should be suppressed, and the folio of the page may be put in small figures in the foot-line.
When a table or cut of full broad measure must appear in a page of two or more columns, each column of type must be made up to read continuously from the head to the foot of the page, and
286
Parallels in columns
without regard to the separation made by the cut or table. In poetry, lines that rime should not be put on
separate pages.
Quoted lines of poetry should not
begin a page when it can be avoided. When the gauge shows that the chapter will end
with two or three lines only on the last page, and the maker-up has been ordered not to lengthen previous pages, he must ask the author to add more
lines to give a decent fulness to that page; or he may ask him to cancel some lines on previous pages,
so that the chapter will have a neater ending.! A long quotation in a foreign language with its
translation in a parallel column should have the number of words for each column carefully counted. When the words are unequal in number, the col-umns should be made of unequal width, so that the
two columns will end on or near the same parallel. If this treatment is not possible, the column that contains the excess matter may be put in broad measure after it passes the parallel.
This is trouble-
some, but it will prevent the unsightly appearance of one column huddled by the side of its mate that has a long gap of unbalanced white space. 1To an impatient author the time taken for making up the illustrated pages of a chapter often seems unreasonably long, but it is unavoidable, for illustrated pages can be made up by one person only, and he may have to undo repeatedly what
he has done. Yet forethought will prevent some wasted labor. Thetype,cuts, and notes for each
page should be cut out of an extra proof and be arranged in page form on the pages of a dummy before the practical work of making up is attempted.
Position offull-page illustrations
287
The full-page illustration that occupies the broad
way of the page often has its legend or descriptive line near the gutter or back margin.
It is expected
that the reader will turn the book half-way around, from right to left for the odd page and vice versa for the even page.
This arrangement must be varied
when two facing cuts are intended to explain or supplement each other. They should face one way, so
that they can be read from ‘the same position. The adjustment of blanks before and after ex-
tracts, cuts, and regular or irregular subdivisions of the text is another duty that calls for nice diseretion.
These blanks may be of irregular width,
—the more important divisions separated by wide, and minor divisions by narrow blanks,—but the blanks. assigned to each class should be of uniform width as far as is possible.
It is difficult to main-
tain this appearance of uniformity when blanks have to be increased to drive out, or diminished to take in, an extract, subheading, or quotation that
comes at the head of the page.
In this as in other
eases, the best help is to be had from the author,
who should be asked to change words or lines that interfere with orderly arrangement. When a large piece of matter, as in a long motto or quotation of importance, has to be set in a narrowed measure, the appearance of the composition
will be improved if all the lines are made full, with-
out indention in first line and without break of
white in last line.
It will be necessary to overrun
288
Management of dividing dashes
the matter repeatedly in different measures before this can be done properly.
When a dash is used for a subdivision, to make
that dash seem in the centre, one or more added leads must be put below the dash. The shoulder of the last lower-case text line must be reckoned in blanking-out as one lead or more. Type for the pages of a book should not be
made up while it is wet or even damp.
The wood-
blocking of electrotype illustrations, and even the
wood furniture that meets wet type, will be swelled
by contact with moisture. The exact placing in an open page of one or more lines of type selected for red ink upon a page in
two colors will be made easier by putting a clean proof, on thin paper, of the entire page face down-
ward on the make-up galley.
The maker-up can
then see the proper position of the red-ink lines. If this color pagé is made up solid, and of the same length as the page of black, avoiding a too free use of leads that yield under pressure, the pressman will be aided in making register. It is not practicable to give suggestions for every
peculiarity that may present itself, for make-up is a study without end.
The workmanship of well-
printed books should be critically examined for a
study of the best methods.
STONE-WORK Stones and chases . . . Adjusting margins . . . Locking up ‘Taking proofs . . . Corrections . . . Clearing away
INE of the most conspicuous
pieces in the composing-room is the imposing-stone, a thick, smooth slab of hard marble, bonded with an iron tire, or bedded on plaster in a frame of oak wood.
It is used as a
table for ae up newspaper forms that have to
be printed on flat-bed presses, for adjusting book margins, and for locking up and correcting previously made-up pages of books or jobs.
The space
unused below the stone is usually fitted up with drawers for the stowage of furniture, or with racks for chases.
Stones can be had of supply houses in
many sizes, from 18 x 23 inches to 38x 96 inches. 19
289
290
Imposing-stone and appurtenances
The larger sizes, which are weighty and liable to be broken or gouged by shooting-sticks, have been supplanted in many houses by tables of iron, that are of truer surface and every way stronger. The best iron tables have the edge rabbeted to the thickness of the ordinary brass galley, so made to give to the galley a needed rest when pages on the slice galley are launched upon the surface of the iron.
Imposing-stone with drawers and chase-rack.
The chase is a square iron frame in which composed type is locked up and kept secure, so that it can be lifted from the stone and carried to the press.
It is made of cast- or wrought-iron, to suit
the construction of a printing-machine or the shape of
aform.
The cast-iron chase is cheaper, but it is
Chases of different styles
291
relatively weak, and serviceable for small jobs only. Its greatest defect is incomplete squareness.
The
stereotype or electrotype chase, usually of cast-iron, is planed and squared to a true right angle on one
of its inner corners.
The cross x marked in one
corner indicates the corner against which the head and one side of the page should be laid. Wrought-iron chases are sometimes selected for large and light forms.
When the chase is a plain
iron frame without cross-bars or dovetailed slots for the bars, it is known as a skeleton chase.
This
serves fairly well for posters that have much wood type, for patent blocks and open forms, but it is not serviceable for any large form of great weight. Forms of four hundred pounds are not uncommon
in newspaper work, but they have to be handled at greatrisk.
When tightly locked up, the heavy form
sags in the centre,! and the chase bends outward on one side, putting the form more or less out of square. When two very large pages have to be printed
together (as is customary in the ordinary weekly newspaper), that are too heavy to be made properly 1 It is dificult and sometimes impossible to lift from the stone large and heavy forms of type that have not been strengthened
with cross-bars in the chase. In his Hints on Imposition (page 91), Williams recommends that ‘a smooth board which will extend fully across the form and chase may be nailed securely to the furniture near the centre of
the chase. Thespaceat each end and between the board and the chase should be tightly filled up before lifting the form. The [face of the] type should be pro-
tected with soft paper.” Ihave never tried this expedient, which seems good, but I should recommend screws instead of nails.
One hundred and forty pounds isenough withinaskeleton chase.
292
Chases with cross-bars
secure in one chase, twin chases are preferred. The
twin chases give additional safety in handling, but the sides of these chases are often made thinner on the meeting side.
For large pages of quarto
form, twin chases are made with one cross-bar. f
e
>
ou
)
_____
Twin chases.
)
“)
Twin chases with one eross-bar.
The cross-bar is sometimes welded in the frame, but it is oftener a movable bar of iron, cut with projecting dovetails on either end that accurately fit in slots of similar form cut in the chase.
known as the short cross.
It is
So made, the tendency
to bow outward on the side is prevented. To prevent the bowing outward on the narrower ends, and to insure accurate register on book-work,
it is necessary to use another bridge or connectingrod, known as the long cross, which is firmly connected to the outer frame by the same device of
slots and dovetails.
As it has less resistance to
overcome, the long cross is a narrower bar of iron. This variety of chase is known as the shiftingbar chase, or the book-chase.
The side-sticks and
Chase-bars need special care
293 ©
quoins are placed nearest the chase-frame, and the pressure on the pages of type, when properly locked
up, is evenly resisted by
the truly squared cross- [ ;-—— bars.
»
This illustration
shows the position of the bars as they are used for ordinary forms of
8vo,
16mo, and
For
32mo.
forms of 12mo, 18mo, and
i
24mo, that require a fold-
ing of the sheet in three
parts, the long cross (and sometimes the short cross) has to be put in another
position, asisindicated by — the places for slots in the illustration.
To prevent
Book-chase with two shifting cross-bars.
the bars from twisting in the process of locking up, the pressure should be made equal from each one of the four sides toward the common centre.
Once
twisted, the shifting bars are made entirely straight or square with some difficulty. The accuracy of a book-chase largely depends on
the care given to the shifting bars, which are made to fit exactly, and should be removed and inserted
with caution.
As they cannot be transposed end for
end alternately, nor be fairly fitted to other chases
apparently of the same size, each bar should have
an arbitrary number punched on one end with steel
294
Long and narrow chases
punches, and this number should be repeated on
the chase in the place where it meets the bar. Under no circumstances should the bar be put in any other place, for a chase is permanently injured when the bar is forced into a slot for which it was
not originally fitted.
Bars taken out of a chase
should be dried, cleaned, oiled, and put away in a place where the edges of the dovetails will not be hacked or bruised.
Carefully treated, they will do
good service for more than a lifetime. Screw-chases are sometimes provided for small presses.
Two sides are pierced for screws which
press against the stout iron bar that forces the type
tight.
The object sought is the locking up of a
large form in a small chase, for which quoins and
side-sticks cannot be used.
The small screw-chase
is not in favor; uneven pressure of the screw will twist the type off its feet, and the screws often
rust and become immovable.
Another form of
screw-chase is made for locking up the forms of daily newspapers.
Long and narrow chases are supplied for headings and
bill-heads.
They
a) the beds of printing-maare sometimes used on
_])
Heading-chase.
chines as a better substitute for many pieces of
wood
furniture, which
always has a tendency to bow or spring upward on the bed, often to the damage of the machinery.
Tools used about the stone
295
The shooting-stick is a short bar of wood, iron, or brass that is used to wedge quoins in the process of locking up. The
stick of had wood. Ser eee wears out quickly,
Shooting-stick of iron.
but it does not de-
face the stone, and for that reason it is preferred for all light forms.
Brass or iron shooting-sticks are
more efficient tools, and are really necessary for all heavy forms, but they require careful handling. The mallet provided to strike the shooting-stick, usually of wood, is sometimes covered with soleleather and sometimes ferruled with an iron band. The planer is a stout eube of hard wood, which can be used with propriety for making level a form of
Mallet.
is locked up.
type only before the form
When used to level type after locking
up, it may become a tool of damage. The proof-planer is the ordinary planer covered with thick elastic felt. It is used for taking pounded proofs.
Side-sticks, or bevels, are inclined planes of wood,
iron,
or
type-
Planer.
metal, made to the height of low quadrats, to lock up or secure forms of type in chases that have been
296
The Hempel quoin of iron
properly wedged with quoins.
Wood is cheapest
and most used, but it necessarily receives hard treatment and is soon worn out. warp is another objection.
Its liability to
For newspaper forms
and book-work the metal side-stick is preferred.
Quoins are the blunt wedges of maple, hickory, or boxwood that are forced against the side-stick by means of shooting-stick and mallet.
Quoins
and side-sticks of wood shrink after they have been wet and dried, and gradually relax their pressure ; this sometimes causes a piling of the form.
To pre-
vent this accident, as well as to put a stronger
pressure on the type, iron quoins, commonly known
as patent quoins, have been invented.
They are
made in many styles, and some are protected by
patents.
The iron quoin most approved of is in
two pieces, each having two small inclined planes of equal length, with cogs or teeth on the interior sides. A key-wrench, that grips the interior cogs or teeth, expands
the
two
pieces
to a wider parallel and gradually tightens the
The Hempel quoin.
type in the form. A tongue on one
half of the quoin, fitting in a corresponding groove in the other half, prevents either half from being
twisted out of line.
The power that can be exerted
by this wrench is greater than that usually obtained
Adjusting margins
297
with the mallet and shooting-stick.
These patent
quoins are better than quoins of wood in preventing
the
slackening
of
pressure after the form has left the press, but they
are not so efficient while the form is on press. The jarring made
on
some
kinds of cylinder-presses
tends to
their gradual
loosening.
A strip of thick blot-
Hempel iron quoin with its turnkey.
ting-paper or of thin pine reglet between a Hempel quoin and the chase may
prevent the loosening of pressure produced by the continued vibration. Another variety of iron quoin consists of two
stout cubes of iron that can be pushed apart by working a ratchet against the nuts of a right and left screw fixed between the cubes.
ADJUSTING
MARGINS
One of the duties of the stoneman is the making of margins.
In some printing-houses it is the cus-
tom to have him determine all margins from scant verbal instruction without a plan.
This eustom
is not to be commended, for it leaves too much
to his discretion. As the margins on three sides of the proposed book may be unequally reduced by
298
Pattern sheet needed by stoneman
trimming, and on one side by some methods of sewing or stitching, about which he is seldom fully advised, it seems proper that the determination of head and back margins for every page should be made in the counting-room by the person who has
taken in the order for the book and has explicit instructions from its publisher about the margins. For this purpose a pattern sheet should be made with carefully drawn pen lines that describe the
width of back and head margins upon the leaves of any two mated pages of the paper that will be used in printing the book.
These mated pages will be
1 and 8 in the half-sheet of 8vo, or 1 and 16 in the half-sheet of 16mo.
The pen drawing should be
made upon the outer leaves of a full section of the book, which consists of as many leaves as the binder folds together at one operation.
It is usually eight
leaves (sixteen pages) of ordinary paper, but it may
be only four leaves (eight pages) of thick paper. If paper of the prescribed size is not in the house, a larger size may be selected, and a piece of this larger size must be cut down to the exact size of
the paper needed for one section.
The paper for
this model should be folded with great accuracy to make even folds without waste.
So folded, it will
show the leaves as they will appear unsewed and untrimmed.
Before any attempt is made to draw the lines for the head and back margins, it should be known
whether the intended book is to be sewed, centre-
Paper wasted by trimming
299
stitched, or side-stitched, whether it is to be trimmed much or little, at head and tail only, or all around,
or left with uncut edges. Fair allowance must be made in the pattern sheet for the paper that will be wasted in trimming, or taken up and concealed in the back by different methods of sewing or sidestitching, as may be more apparent in this diagram. eee
eee
ee
ee
eee
ee
ee
ee
ge
a
ee
=
ee
rr
rere
leaf; the black connected line near it, the leaf as it will appear after trimming; the outlined square in the centre of each leaf, the position of the page.
If the book is to be trimmed (or, even if untrimmed, it may afterward be rebound), begin by marking
off at the head, front, and tail of the leaf the paper that will be wasted in trimming.
For the head
margin of an octavo allow for waste one eighth of
an inch, for the front margin one quarter of an inch, and for the tail margin three eighths of an
300 inch.
Margins must be unequal These are approximations; a careful binder
takes less, a reckless binder more.
Then consult
the binder as to the loss of paper taken up in the
_
back by wire-stitching or sewing, and mark off the width of the paper so concealed.
The paper taken
up in the back by binding will be variable : in some kinds of sewed books it will be too small for allowance ; in the side-stitched book it will vary from one sixth to one quarter of an inch, or more if there are many sections in the book.
Having determined the dimensions of the leaf as it will appear after sewing and trimming, mark on
the leaf, with clear pen lines, the size and shape of the page in exact position.
Custom requires that
the margins of a page shall be uneven:
least at the
back, but little more apparently at the head, much more at the front, and most of all at the tail.
A
page so placed on the leaf will be most acceptable to publisher and book-buyer.
The proportions may
be roughly expressed by these figures for the plain octavo: for visible back margin (after sewing) 4 to 5 picas, for head margin 5 to 6 picas, for front margin 7 to 8 picas, for tail margin 8 to 9 picas, it
being understood that these will be the measurements of the leaf after sewing and trimming.
The
width of the paper lost by trimming or concealed
by sewing must be estimated and allowed for in the proposed margin on the pattern sheet.
These ap-
portionments will be satisfactory for the ordinary book, but a publisher, for peculiar reasons, may
How to adjust margins to paper
— 301
require margins to be wider or narrower.
If so,
they must be changed to meet his wishes, but the rule of a steadily increasing width of margin, beginning at the back, increasing at the front, and
greatest at the tail, is seldom departed from in the ordinary well-made book. The head and back margins should be first deter-
mined. If they have been considered with relation to their waste by trimming and sewing, they will be seldom changed. If correct on the pattern sheet for the two mated pages of a section, they will be correct for all the pages in the form, whether that
form is an 8vo of one section or a 64mo of four sections.
Front and tail margins ean be most accurately made by the stoneman, for they cannot be predetermined with precision by guesswork.
The pages
in a form should be so disposed on the stone that they will fairly fill the sheet, without any waste of paper, and yet present the needed inequality of margin about every page when the sheet has been printed.
In other words, the form must be made
up to fit the paper.
It may have sixty-four pages,
to be divided by the binder in four sections for separate folding.
For the form of many pages
more blank must be put in the places where the sections have to be eut, but under all conditions the blanks must be so adjusted that the front and tail margins in all sections will be exactly uniform.
So adjusted, every section can be folded evenly,
302
Margins determined by paper
without waste or protruding bolts or edges at the
fore edge and tail.’ The diagram on page 299 is useful as a guide to the maker-up, but it is not enough for the stoneman. It does not sufficiently indicate the proper margins between meeting fore edges or meeting tails in the form of many pages. The form of 12, 16, 24, or 32 pages needs a surer guide.
The front margins for the form of eight pages can be determined by taking two leaves of the pattern sheet previously described on page 299, and lapping them over any two mated pages so that the edges of thepapershall accurately meet similar sides of pages in different quarters of the chase, as is shown in the opposite diagram between pages 1 and 7.
Give to
the front margins all the blank not already covered by type or by the furniture of back margin.
The
tail margins will be regulated by the pressman.
For the half-sheet of 16mo use the same method for determining the front margins, which, in this instance, will be between pages 1 and 13. For the 10ne method of ascertaining proper front and tail margins for the 16mo begins with accurately folding a sheet of its own
vals through the folded section, ‘That done, unfold the paper: the distance between parallel stabs will show the width of the
bolts,
service to a novice in margin.
of blanks needed for proper mareight leaves, paper toa section This method, of some all its folds or gins. leaving unopened Then place a page of its
type upon the first leaf of that folded section, and pencil a line all around the page on that leaf.
making, has its disad
paper to be used With a sharp penknife stab each points with the more common method. line in two places at wide inter- is
Adjusting margins for eight pages
303
tail margin take a quarter-sheet of the paper, which must overlap from the tail of page 3 to the tail of page 5, accurately meeting the extreme ends of full
Making front margins for a form of eight pages.
pages, and all the surplus of blank must be given to tail margins on each side of the short cross-bar. When the pages in other quarters of the chase have been margined in a similar manner,all margins will be correct.
The sheet printed therefrom can
304
Adjustment for a form of sixteen
be folded correctly by print or by the edges of paper. Forms of more than 16 pages must be treated in the same way, for they are usually combinations on
paper or jol work, may be
in bookbind-
an over-long sheet ’
may have some sheets that one eighth or one sixth of
longer. Short sheets are
nproperly folded, its ex-
are
ce =
‘This slight excess in measurement, disregarded in ordinary
ves of one eighth: xth
ject ragged
of an inch will pro~
leaves beyond the
folded bolts, much to the annoy=
ance of the reader.
To prevent protruding leaves
305
In the book intended to be trimmed upon two or three sides, the leaves that are slightly over-wide or over-long may not be rated as faults, for the cutting machine that trims off the bolts also cuts off every other chance excess of paper and makes all the
leaves of uniform size.
But there are buyers who
insist on uncut leaves of full size, with bolts unmarred by the knife.
To them the protruding leaf
is a serious blemish that must be removed.
How to
remove it neatly after printing is a puzzle.
It can
be “rough-cut” by tearing each sheet down against
a sharp straight-edge, but never by the scissors or knife; by rasping off in the folded section the ex-
cess of paper with a rotary haggler; by grinding
it off with a rotary circular knife.
But all these
methods call for needless labor, and none of them
gives to the finished book the desired neatness.
It
is better to prevent than to correct. If the ream of paper sold as 30 inches long and
20 inches wide contains occasional sheets that are 204 inches wide, take the largest sheet as the safer
guide for making margin.
Make the distance be-
tween pages 3 and 15 in the half-sheet of 16mo 10;/; inches instead of 10 inches.
This means put-
ting an added nonpareil reglet by the side of the long cross-bar.
So treated, the excess of one sixth
of an inch will be fairly divided in folding and ap-
portioned to each half of the sheet.
The sheets
that are but 20 inches wide will have leaves that are one twelfth of an inch shorter than sheets with 20
306
Locking up work of nicety
-srhaleener ipl
the fore edge. In the form so made up
be no ragged or protruding leaves. The deficiency in the short leaves will be almost imperceptible.—
q
LOCKING UP
The locking up of pages in a form of type seems as simple work to the unpractised as the driving of wedges. This common belief is a serious error: pages cannot be truly squared and properly prepared for printing by brute foree only. Locking
up calls for unusual discretion in the selection of the quoins, chases, and side-sticks, as well as in the graduation of pressure. Before made-up pages are laid down, the imposing-stone should be made perfectly clean. Particles of dust adhering to the stone will prevent an even’ planing down of the type, and the mould taken from types of uneven height will produce uneven
electrotype plates. Correet stone-work depends primarily on properly justified lines and exact make-up, but the stone
is not the place to remedy the grosser faults made
by the compositor.
When faults have been dis-
covered, or belated corrections in justification are”
required after imposition, the pages should be sent
back to the galley. The readjustment of make-up —
on the stone is always difficult and is seldom
|
Steel square and straight-edge The chase needs an examination.
307
It may have on
the cross-bars blotches of rust, or adhering card-
board put there by the pressman as a makeshift aid to exact register; it may be warped or twisted, so
that it does not entirely rest flat upon the stone; it may be out of square, with bent or sprung crossbars or bruised dovetails thrust in badly fitting
slots.
Chases with crooked or twisted bars often
cause types to get “off their feet”; they work up spaces, and produce bad register. The chase should be selected to fit the press upon
which it will be printed, large enough to give free play to the quoins, but not so large as to compel
the use of an excess of interior wood furniture.
Its corners in the angles of the frame and in those
of the bars should be tested with a steel square
before it is accepted.
If it is not truly square, exact
register is made difficult and is often impossible.! A steel square and a long straight-edge of steel are needed for exact book-work by the stoneman as much as they are by a carpenter or a machinist. 1A jobbing electrotyper of New York City, who received every day from different printers forms varying in dimensions from five to one hundred square inches, reports that many forms delivered to him were not truly squared and properly locked. The deviation from a true right angle was usually slight, not to be noticed in a print on one side only of the paper, but noticeable enough when many plates were
printed together upon one sheet and the pages backed each other. In some of these forms, out-ofsquareness was produced by locking up the form against the wrong corner, so that the pressure of the quoins had to be resisted by the unsquared inner angle of a cast-iron chase; in others, by too much pressure on one side and too little on another, or by worn and warped furniture of wood.
308
To prevent chase bowing on press
The pressman who has to print a letterpress form
should not be required to correct the skewing of pages by inserting bits of cardboard between the chase and the furniture. A book form of many pages can be and should be prepared on the imposing-stone to produce perfect register. A form of four or eight small pages may be truly locked up in an ordinary cast-iron chase, but the form of twelve or more pages of 12mo or of larger size needs a wrought-iron chase with true cross-bars. The chase without cross-bars, whether of wrought-
or cast-iron, will bend outward in the centre, where pressure is great and resistance is small. Cross-bars
are added to the chase as a means to maintain a uniform resistance on each side of the bars against
the even, all-around pressure of locking up.
If the
pressure is unequal, and is greater in one half or one quarter of the chase, the cross-bars at the overtight part will bend. Slots are cut in the chase and dovetails are put in the bars toprevent this outward
bending of type and to aid in giving squareness to the form.
A large form of one page only that contains a great mass of heavy type needs a chase with frame
of extra thickness.
While a tight locking up is
needed to prevent the sagging of type in the centre
of theform and to provide for its security in transit
to the press, too strong pressure is sure to bend the chase and to bow outward the type in the form. To keep all lines of type square or in parallel, the
Furniture to be carefully selected
309
pressman may have to unlock the form after it has
been placed on the bed of the press, to put a thin reglet between the chase and the centre clamp on
the bed of a cylinder-press, and then relock the type in the form as well as relock the chase upon the bed. The stiff resistance of the centre clamp on the bed of the press is needed there to prevent the bowing
outward of the chase and to preserve the straight-
ness of the lines of type. Furniture of wood that has been water-soaked and warped, frayed at the edges or rounded at the
corners, should never be used.
The outer furniture
between the side-stick and the chase should be of one piece only, fully as long as the resisting sidestick or foot-stick.
The fudging of two or more
small pieces of wood as resists to the quoins, or the
selection of two small quoins, compels needless labor and makes unsatisfactory work.
—— FT “tee
A side-stick properly cut.
Side-sticks of wood should be cut diagonally at the ends, so that they will present the longer side to
the type, and not to the quoins.
This will pre-
vent the use of the side provided for quoins against the type, and will preserve the smooth side for the
type only.
The side-stick or foot-stick at its nar-
rower end should be as long as but no longer than
310
Relative merits ofwood and metal
the type it presses against : neither one should cross
the other, nor should the head-bolt, gutter, or any other piece of furniture in the chase be so long
that it will bind against the side- or foot-stick. The relative length and suitable position of each bit of furniture in a form of 8vo may be seen in
the diagram on page 63.
The accompanying dia-
gram shows an improper selection of the side-stick. When one bevelled stick crosses another, the form
is locked and unlocked with difficulty, and always at some risk of squabbling the type. Metal furniture in one -===:==-|
preferred for the head-
bolts
as well
backs or gutters.
as
for
Side-
sticks of iron, or even
Improper side-sticks.
of type-metal, are better than those of wood. Guttered furniture for
back margins should be a little short of the full | length of the page, and head-bolts a little narrower than the width of the measure, but if the head-bolts are cut too narrow the types near the corners of head-lines may be insecurely held. For ordinary work the furniture outside of the type and nearest the chase may be of wood, but metal is safer for interior work, for color-printing, for rule borders, or for any work that will require accurate register. When suitable garnishings have been selected and
ee
ee
eee
ee
Pages to be tightened gradually adjusted, the quoins may be put in.
311
They should
be selected with care, for much wrong locking up is caused by the forcing of quoins into positions for which they are not fitted.
Any quoin selected that
does not rest flat on the stone and that will not move snugly against the side-stick should be rejected at once.
It is bad practice to allow quoins
to project at an angle so that they can be struck direct with the mallet, and not by the shooting-stick. The flat side of quoins should always rest upon the
stone. When the side-stick is thin and has a slight bevel, it will be necessary, as increase of pressure may require, to change the quoins first selected for
others of larger size.
A thin side-stick will need
more quoins than a thicker one. As the cord that ties the page is gradually un-
wound, the quoins should be gradually tightened, by the pressure of the fingers, so that the side-stick will be kept close to the type and prevent the thin letters at the ends of the lines from hanging or dropping.
At this stage the mallet should not be used ;
the pressure of the fingers is sufficient. The quoins should be equidistant, and no more force should be exerted than is needed for a gentle pressure. When the page-cords have been removed, and the pages have been cautiously and securely pressed by
side-sticks and quoins, the form may be planed down.
Before this operation the face of the planer
should be examined and brushed off.
Some printers
wrap its face with smooth clean paper.
The planer
312
Violent planing a mistake
should be held firmly in the left hand, so that it cannot be moved sidewise by the blow of the mallet. It should always have a full bearing on the type, and never be allowed to hang over the side or over
an open page that offers no resistance.. It should
be struck in the centre, not with the head but with
the end of the handle of the mallet.
In composition
that has been fairly prepared, very little force is needed to press down the few types that may be too high, and taps with the end of the handle are enough for the purpose. When the planer is struck
by the head of the mallet, it is usually struck at an angle, so that the force applied is unequally dif-
fused; most of that force is exerted on the side of
the planer nearest the striker, and the far-off side gets but little.
When the blow is struck vertically
by the handle, less force is needed, and that force is more equally diffused.
A violent planing down of the form is always damaging to the type, especially so when the striker
works rapidly and makes his blows fall upon a planer which may be occasionally held at an angle that does not give it a full flat bearing on every part of the type.
Violent planing down is wrongly
supposed to hide some of the mischiefs produced by loose justification and over-tight locking up.
In
all forms that have been locked up too tightly, the
type will bow or curve upward slightly about the centre of the form, and will not rest fairly upon the stone. The form that is so locked up may be
Faults produced by bottled type
313
repeatedly planed down until the types meet the stone in the centre, but they will spring back again in this or in another quarter, and will soon carry upward with them the spaces that blacken the sheet. The slightness of the pressure needed to secure a
properly justified form is fairly illustrated by patent iron quoins.
Slight twists of the wrench on the
quoins will tighten the type more securely than many uneven blows with the mallet. Bottled types are not so common now as they
were, but when they seem to be the cause of the bowing upward of type in any part of the form, a rough remedy may be devised by inserting a strip about half an inch high of thin, bevelled cardboard between the side-stick and the lower part of the body of the type.
The increasing thickness of the
cardboard near the lower part of the body of the type, where the bottling is apparent, provides a more even resistance to the pressure of the quoins. It makes less the greater pressure at the base that tends to thrust types upward.
When the bottling
is conspicuous, the bevelled cardboard should be used on the opposite end of the page. Types are about eleven twelfths and side-sticks
about five eighths of an inch high.
The pressure
of locking up is consequently greatest at the foot of composed type, but if the type is in any way bottled, the pressure there will be unduly increased.
The bevelled cardboard at the side will be an aid to more even pressure.
314 Equality ofpressure of importance In this diagram the outer black line represents the
outline of a page before locking; the inner dotted line, the same page after locking up. A
The distance
between these lines indicates
approximately the
“give” or compressibility
of the type, which, in a long page of leaded type, is usually greater from the
head to the foot than from side to side.
The single
types in the corner A are but
slightly
moved
by
locking up, but those in the corner C will be moved much more, and in a
diagonal line toward that corner A.
To lock up
properly, the pressure applied to the type must be gradual and even on each side.
When the pressure
is not even and gradual, one page or one quarter
will hang or crook.
If the quoins at the foot of
the form are made full tight before any pressure is put on the side, the types will give in that direction only.
If the types have been made
needlessly
tight by too much pressure at the foot, twice as much force must be exerted to move them in the contrary direction.
Under this unnecessary pres-
sure, the types will bow upward or hang in one quarter, the cross- bars may be twisted, or the chase may be strained or cracked.
In every form too
tightly locked up the types are sure to bow upward ;
Faults of over-tight locking up
315
then follows a violent and needless planing down in a vain effort to keep them on their feet.} The tightening of quoins should begin at the tail of pages by pushing up the quoins with the thumb.
The pages should be next tightened on the side in the same manner. rately treated.
Each quarter should be sepa-
When the quoins cannot be moved
by the fingers, the shooting-stick and the mallet may be used for this purpose.
The first strokes of
the mallet should be light, and should be given in regular order to the quoins in each quarter of the chase.
For a large and heavy form of many pages
to be locked up against cross-bars, it may be necessary to go around the form two or three times, gradually increasing the pressure.
The stoneman
should try to lock up type continuously and slowly ; to do it hurriedly or recklessly is to do it badly.
When the form is supposed to be tight enough, it
should be tested by straight-edge and square, which will show where there may be too much pressure. In any form that has been truly justified and evenly locked, the pressure required will not be great.
The difficulty of locking up is always greater in forms that contain tables with brass rules crossing
at right angles or with brass borders. 1Careful pressmen often find it of importance to slacken the quoins of a too tightly locked form as soon as it is laid on the bed of the press, so as to allow the types curved upward in the centre to rest on their feet. If
Forms full
this precaution is neglected, if the presswork begins before the types in the form rest on their feet, an even impression cannot be had. Types will receive injury, spaces will work up, and the work will be delayed.
316
Faults produced by brass rules
of thin leads, or that have columns of types set to
different measures and at right angles, with crossjustification, or that are comparatively solid and incompressible on one side and open and spongy
on the other side, are always troublesome. In forms like these the fault begins with careless justification, but is sometimes increased by badly cut and crooked brass rules that have not had the bur removed from the cut edges.
Bent leads and foul or
badly washed types are other hindrances. If a form has one solid and one spongy side, as may happen in the ordinary form of bank-checks,
a line of properly matched quadrats or quotations should be put on each side of the form as a guard. The side-sticks will then have an even and solid bearing against the guards so provided, and will
not bend the types at one end or in the centre. When mitred brass rules do not join, the accuracy of the mitring should be tested.
Even when the
mitring is exact, there will be difficulty if the rule is too thin, or if the form:is locked with wood
quoins and a thin wood side-stick.
<A large form
of pages with mitred brass-rule borders can be truly
locked up only by making use of an accurate chase,
metal furniture for all divisions inside of the type-
work, perfect justification, iron side-sticks, and patent quoins.
To these must be added extra care
on the part of the stoneman. The art of locking up may be summarized in a few words: Justify and make up accurately with
Locking up tested by the planer types squarely on their feet.
317
Use strong and true
chases. Prefer metal furniture for all interior work. Make composition solid, and avoid a too free use of
leads. Use iron side-sticks and patent quoins. Lock up slowly, gradually, and not too tightly. Locking up is done for newspaper-printing ma-
chines by means of a wrench applied to screws in the chase.
The pressure so exerted is great, and
may make the types half a point higher.
I have
seen types humped upon the back of each body in places where this body opposed the nick of the types .
in a preceding line that relieved this pressure. When the form has been finally locked up, the
planer may be gently used, not to beat down a few -
types that are supposed to be over-high, but to as-
certain whether the types rest truly on their feet and do not bow or curve upward.
A
solid sound,
that will be readily recognized in the shock of a firm resistance, is always produced when types are on their feet, and the form that gives this sound
and touch seldom needs any more planing down. The hollow sound produced by the planer over any portion of the form is evidence that the type has sprung upward from over-tight locking up.
When
this hollow sound is heard, it will be useless to try to put types on their feet by more planing down, for the bowing upward will reappear in another
quarter.
The only remedy is to slacken the quoins:
if this makes the form insecure, faults in justification or make-up should be searched for.
318
Safeguards for electrotype forms
Forms of type surrounded by furniture of wood
that may be kept in the chase for many days will require a frequent retightening of the quoins.
If
this precaution is neglected, the gradual shrinking
of the wood may cause the form to fall in pi. Patent quoins of iron, firm as they may seem in their hold on type when the form is laid on the press-bed, sometimes work slack or loose by the
constant jarring of the printing-machine. A careful pressman tests their tightness repeatedly.
Pages intended to be electrotyped are usually imposed in small chases of cast-iron, truly squared, but large enough to hold four or more pages of
ordinary 12mo.
Small types and half-tone photo-
engravings need more pressure than large types. The large 4to or 8vo, or any page that contains a
large illustration, is most satisfactorily moulded in the chase of one page only. A page of type and a
full-page illustration should not be moulded together when they can be moulded separately, for each page requires different pressure.
To prevent the spreading of the wax over the sides and ends of pages, guards are provided by electro-
typers.
These guards are rudely cast
slugs of
type-metal, type-high on one side and of variable width and length, cut to suit the size of page required.
When two pages are imposed in one
chase, the form of guard is changed so that the plates made therefrom can be separated with ease. It is possible to mould type without any bearer or 6
Guards used by electrotypers
319
guard, but the plate so made will be imperfect. When proper guards have not been attached by the
stoneman, the electrotyper tries to lessen this de-
Guards for electrotype work.
fect with hasty indentations in the wax, but they never do the perfect work of guards or bearers. The guards of metal furniture provided by the
electrotyper to surround every page are intended to confine the moulding wax so that it will not
spread outward, and to assist in forming the needed bevel that is afterward planed on the side of the finished plate.
The best electrotype plates
are made from types set up with high spaces and
quadrats that are of even height with the shoulders of the types, and that prevent too much of a downward escape of the moulding wax.
A further safe-
guard is provided against imperfect moulding by inserting in every open space on the page type-high bearers or resists to pressure, as shown on pages 73
320
The taking ofpounded proofs
and 74.
These bearers are routed off the plate
when they have served this purpose.
The page so
formed with bearers will lighten the work of the .
electrotyper and materially aid him in producing a printable plate.
TAKING PROOFS
Pages to be electrotyped should be proved on a hand-press; one with a bed-plate of 13 x 16 inches will be strong enough for two pages of large 8vo. Proofs on press, that do not damage the type, are preferred by readers to those taken by the proofplaner.
Letterpress forms, too large for the small proofpress, have to be proved by beating with the proofplaner after this manner: A sheet of sized paper,
dampened on a clean stone by sponging it evenly
on one side, is carefully laid upon the previously inked form of type.
Then the stoneman takes the
proof-planer in his left hand and lays it down squarely but quickly upon the inked form.
Be-
ginning at the nearest corner, with the end of the
handle (not with mallet head) he strikes a quick
blow usually.in the centre of the planer.
From
that page he moves the planer to other pages, re-
newing the striking until he sees the print of the types faintly indenting the moist sheet.
In like
manner he beats all the pages, taking care not to
slip the planer or to wrinkle the sheet, or to beat
Proper cleansing of types
321
too violently on blank pages or exposed lines to their injury.
|
or
Proofs of large forms are sometimes taken by beating the sheet with a stiff brush.
Beaten proofs
are wearing to the type, but the brush wears more and does not give so fair a print.
The blanket on
a proof-planer needs frequent renewal, for it becomes hard and inelastic after continued usage.
The sheet so proved, when dry enough to handle,
should be carefully folded by the print, so as to show uniform margins on each page.
The surplus
of paper, if any, at the ends should be torn off with a straight-edge, but the bolts that close the paper
at head and fore edge should not be opened. The reader or foreman who first examines the
proof unfolds the sheet and tests it for correctness of margins.
This he cannot do if the bolts have
been opened.
With the folded proof should also
go to the reader’s desk all the copy for that sheet laid in regular order. The stoneman, or the boy
that helps him, then cleans the type with a brush moistened with benzine, and afterward sops out
with a wet sponge the undissolved residuum that
clings to the shoulders and counters of the type.
.
This duty of the stoneman is often half done. ‘It is a mistake to think that proved types have been fairly cleansed when ink has been wiped off their
faces with benzine.
The type is not clean even if
the face shows fairly white.
The dirt of half-dis-
solved ink, and the gummy matter always left after 21
322
Types often need alkaline water
benzine has been swept from the face, gradually fill up the counters of all the letters.
Type that
has been treated so repeatedly will show raggedness and dirtiness about all its lines, and the shallower counters of letters like a, e, s will fill up.
The elec-
trotyper will be censured for faulty plates, and the
pressman for his muddy and overinked presswork, when the fault has been created by the stoneman’s
neglect to keep the types perfectly clean.
Type
often is condemned as worn out when it is only
filled up with accretions of hardened dirt.
Types so neglected that have received a bath of boiling lye (which softens the dirt so that it can be brushed out) and a thorough rinsing with water will be restored to usefulness.
Benzine is a useful
detergent, but it does not supplant lye. Caustic potash, shaved or in powder, slowly dissolved in alcohol, is an excellent cleanser of choked-up photoengravings.! 1 Neglect to clean type and wash forms began with the more extended use of engravings on wood. Engravers forbade the use of water that swelled and of lye that softened the wood. Alcohol and a weak solution of
ammonia were the only cleansers allowed. This treatment made difficult the proper cleaning of the type near the engravings. The photo-engraver of halftones, fearful of the fragility of his lines, advised that the surplus ink left upon an illustration be wiped off with soft flannel
moistened with oil. His purpose was served when the ink was rubbed off the face, but not removed from the form. He could not foresee that the resid-
uum left would in time damage type as well as cuts. Instructions like these have indirectly taught compositors to sacrifice
the durability of types for an immediate benefit to the cuts. No cleanser can be a perfect
substitute
for alkaline water. The form of type intended for
the foundry or for press should be drenched with water.
Correction on the stone
323
The paper selected for the proof should be thin, smooth, well-sized, and evenly dampened.
Proofs
taken on dry paper are not so satisfactory to the
proof-reader.
The roller should be kept clean and
tacky, and evenly coated with a film of good ink that has been protected from dust.
Little ink, but
much rolling, is required; a proof that is a trifle
pale in color is always helpful to the reader in his search for bruised type.
An overinked or strongly
indented proof prevents the finding of bad letters.
Proof is returned, when read, to the compositor, with his name marked in the margin at the beginning of each take, and he is required to correct it
immediately, for it is a general rule that corrections take precedence over all other work.
The tools preferred for correction are the bodkin
and the tweezers.1 Some compositors use the point of a penknife and the nib of a steel composing-rule, but they are mean substitutes; yet all correcting-
tools will be destructive unless they are carefully handled.
The correction of turned letters or substitutes of
one letter for another of the same thickness can easily be made, but when the marked letter is of a 1 The bodkin and the tweezers most frequently used are too frail; they often slip and bruise adjacent letters. When a letter has to be withdrawn from the form, the straight, thin-nosed pliers preferred by jewellers are
better tools.
Two bodkinswith
sharp, curved points, put at opposite sides of the body, will enable the corrector to lift one type or an entire word in a vertical line. Types need not be seriously damaged in correction
when they are pulled up squarely and are not pried out at an angle.
324
When a reader can be helpful ~
different thickness, or when one or more letters are to be added or withdrawn, the line in which these changes are needed should be taken out and put in the stick for correction.
Justifying on the galley
or on the stone should never be attempted. Correction on the stone is always an unpleasant duty, but the work may be lightened by carrying corrections to the stone in a paper tray which contains an assortment of justifying spaces. The composing-stick, shooting-stick, and mallet should never be laid upon the face of the form. Each compositor should remove rejected type as soon as he has finished correction, and should notify the compositor whose work follows to go on with his share of the work. Outs and doublets are difficult of correction, for they require the overrunning of the paragraph in which they occur, and sometimes the re-making up and always the re-reading of the form.
These er-
rors are usually caused by the carelessness of the compositor, who does not read the matter in his stick before he puts it on the galley, but the penalty he has to suffer is severe.
In many offices it is a
rule that he must not only make his work correct, but he must pay for the added cost of the remake-up and re-reading.’ When corrections have been made, a new proof 10n hurried newspaper work
a”
to
make
the
lines come out
the slow correction of an out or a doublet may be evaded, if the
even, but this liberty ean never be taken in » faithful reprint or
‘reader can supply words enough
in any text of importance.
be
Preparing forms for press
325,
is taken, which is called the first revise. The reader
compares the first proof with its revise. If marked errors have not been corrected, or if corrections have been made in wrong places, or lines have been transposed, or spacing has been made uneven, these errors are marked on the revise and sent back to the compositor in fault. After they have been corrected a new proof is taken, which is intended to be and should be literally correct to copy. This proof, known as the first author’s proof, is sent to the author with the copy, after it has been annotated with queries made by the proof-reader. The author’s proof often comes back marked with alterations from copy. As these alterations are not caused by the negligence of the compositor and have not been provided for in the price agreed upon for composition, the expense of making the changes becomes an additional charge to the author.
The
author’s proof is corrected by a careful time-hand, who marks on the proof the time it has taken and the date, and signs it with his initials. Preparatory work that can be done on the stone should be done there before the form is ordered to press.
To allow the pressman, whose time is more
valuable than that of the stoneman, to correct gross faults in margin, to alter the position of pages, or to insert the points that may be needed for register, is not far-seeing management.
Points for type forms should be inserted on the stone.
They are not needed for trimmed paper,
326
Points often needed for register
as an expert feeder can make register by carefully laying the sheet up to the side-guides, but they are needed for hand-made papers of rough edges and
of irregular size, and may be needed for machinemade papers that have been unevenly trimmed.! The common form of point is a short, round iron wire, pointed on one end and a
little more
than type-high, which is usually inserted in holes drilled in the centre of the cross-bar of the chase. Another kind of point has a screw base that allows it to be inserted anywhere in the wood furniture of the form.
When the first side of the paper has been printed,
the points are withdrawn.
The perforations made
by them serve as guides to the feeder for the placing of each sheet upon the spring points attached to the feed-board. Properly used, the points insure exact register.
Points should be placed in the form
as may be directed by the pressman—about fifteen
inches apart.
For paper intended for a folding-
machine, exact position is of utmost importance,
and points must be made immovable by accidental
disturbance.
Exact register may be impossible if
the marginal furniture is rearranged and the points are moved while on the bed of the press. Forms to be printed on a cylinder-press should have the type at a fixed distance from the edge of 1 When crookedly cut paper cannot be retrimmed, fair register may be had if the paper can
guide, and on the second side to the right guide, so that the same edge will always be presented to
be fed on its first side tothe left
the guide.
Breaking up dead matter
327
the chase-frame, on the gripper-edge of the chase. The distance will vary from two to three inches, according to the set of the cylinder.
To allow the
type to come within this distance is to expose it to the risk of being crushed by the iron grippers. The stoneman should have a gauge made by the
pressman that accurately defines the distance. The paper provided for a form should have at
least half an inch of margin on all sides of the type.
It is practicable to print type on the extreme
end of one side only of the sheet—the side opposed to the grippers.
The half-inch allowance is needed
for the grippers that seize the sheet, as well as for
the bands that keep the paper close to the cylinder.
CLEARING
AWAY
An important duty of the stoneman is the clearing away of all dead matter.
The form that has been
electrotyped or printed and is ordered for distribution comes back to the stoneman or his helper to be broken up.
The electrotyped form is unlocked on
the stone, but its furniture and quoins are carefully removed and kept together in good order, so that they can be used again for other forms of the same size.
Its type is put upon the standing galley re-
served for distribution after it has been relieved of its head- and foot-lines and other blanks that may be needed for future use on the same work.
The
large form is usually laid upon the letter-board.
|
328
Papering of dead matter
The letter-board, which is a movable board of wood, is intended to hold dead type after the chase has been removed. It is made to slide upon cleats under the frames of stones or stands.
For posters
containing much wood type and forms of patent blocks the letter-board is useful, but for forms of small type it is a mischievous device, for it gives no proper protection to composed type and invites the making of pi.
Forms of small pages not in-
tended for immediate distribution should be tied up as soon as they are put upon the letter-board. A better method would be to put all tied-up or standing jobs on the top of the table of a low caserack, where they can be seen: the placing of dead type in dark corners or on an obscured letter-board
delays new composition and promotes disorder.
Dead matter that will not be distributed soon should be prepared at once for papering and storage in the type-closet. This work begins by taking out lines of quadrats and capitals, and everything
but the ordinary text type. Leads, lines of quadrats, capital letters, display letter, and unusual sorts of every kind in masses should be laid aside for
immediate distribution by time-hands. After the rejects have been culled, the matter saved should be re-made up in paper packages, uniform as to either
length or width, so that they can be neatly piled one over another in the type-closet, without danger
of breaking.
The paper wrapper should be plainly
marked in ink with the proper name of the face
Useful-sorts not to be papered
329
and the body of the type, not omitting the number
of nicks.
A package so made up and labelled need Display let-
not be opened for a reéxamination.
ter, quadrats, figures, and any sort in limited supply, should never be papered when there is room for them in the open cases.
Materials for regular
use should always be made accessible. The old rule that required piece-compositors to
clear away all the matter in the dead form, and to distribute large masses of strange types that were
not immediately needed, is no longer enforced.
It
is now the custom to have dead matter that is overfull of italic, accents, display letter, small caps, etc., distributed by the time-hands.
It is expected, how-
ever, that the piece-compositor will distribute type
taken from the closet, and not be too punctilious in refusing the distribution of a moderate amount
of unusual sorts.
It is to the interest of all persons
that these sorts should be returned at once to case, for it is but just that the compositor who has been
provided, as is usual, with special sorts from the storage case should return them to that case. The type-closet should have separate compartments of stout wood for each face and body of type
that may be kept on storage or out of case, each
compartment firmly braced and fitted to sustain heavy weight. A printed label should be affixed in proper place, specifying on each compartment
with exactness the name, face, and body of the type,
and the number of nicks.
330
Places for chases and chase-racks
The chase-rack is reserved for forms of type that await reading or distribution.
It is often placed
under the imposing-stone, as may be seen in the
illustration on page 290.
For electrotype chases of
the same size, a chase-rack ean be made by screwing
to the floor and to the bottom of the imposing-table parallel rows of stout oak cleats about two inches broad.
The chase nested to stand upright without
other support will slide and be secure in the grooves made by the cleats.
For all chases of irregular size
it is necessary to attach the upper cleat to a frame
that has diagonal divisions and inclined shelves or supports.
Small chases can be arranged in two
tiers. If space will allow, the chase-rack could be advantageously placed against a dead wall, if that dead wall receives a fair light. It is a mistake to put it in any dark place, where the forms must be examined with inconvenience and possible injury. In some book-printing houses the different duties
of the maker-up and the stoneman are made interchangeable so that they may be done by one person.
In all houses the stoneman should be a com-
positor of experience and intelligence, who knows how to adapt means to ends, and is not content to
work by rote and rule only.
He should work in
concord with every contributor to the book, from
publisher to bookbinder, for he can help or hinder them in many ways.
;
ate
20.
iS
IX
IMPOSITION Elementary principles . . . Schemes for various forms from two to one hundred and twenty-eight pages. . . Inset forms... Oblong pages... The leaflet . . . Small pamphlets . . . New method of collating . . . Folding-machines Coneluding remarks ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
MPOSITION is a puzzle to the novice.
He does not see why
pages apparently laid out of order on the stone fall in order
onthe printed and folded sheet. He may learn to impose by imitating the practice of an expert
or by copying schemes from some printers’ gram-
mar, but knowledge so acquired has limited applieation. Large sizes and strange shapes of paper, 331
devising of new schemes. It is better to begin
with the study of customary methods of folding. Begin with folding blank paper for three differ-
ent sections of 8, 16, and 32 pages (without cutting
open the folds or bolts), and by pencilling upon the leaves so produced the numbers of pages in proper order. The sheet so treated when unfolded will show the relative position of mated pages, and this will give insight into the rudiments of imposition. The first lesson to be learned is that too many pages cannot be properly folded together in one section for correct book-work : 8 pages are enough for thick paper, and 16 pages for paper of ordinary
thickness.
Whoever tries to fold correctly by one
operation 32 pages of paper in one section will find
that the paper buckles at the head fold of inner leaves, and that they are thrust outward at an
angle that makes the type-work seem crooked.?
stretchable paper where it has
been creased for the bead fold, but it is thrust outward at tail
‘Sections always of double leaves
333
Sheets of 24, 32, 48, 64, 96, and even of 128 pages can be, and often are, printed in one form, but for
the sewed book they are never imposed to be consecutively folded together by.one operation. The printed sheet of many pages is subdivided, and each section is separately folded.1_ The newer styles of folding-machines made for pamphlet-work can fold a form of two or more portions simultaneously and
inset one within another, but each portion receives separate treatment. It should be understood at the outset that in book-work an imposition of many pages in one form is not for one consecutive folding; it is a combination of two or more portions to be separately folded and afterward united.
When the different sections of a book have been gathered, folded, sewed, and trimmed, each section is resolved into a combination of double leaves nested one within another and held together and
to other sections by thread. The double leaf that permits the binding-thread to pass through the fold of each section in the creased centre of the back 1 Sometimes, as in the 12mo, the section consists of two unequal parts, one of 8 and one of 4 pages, and each part is separately folded, go that the smaller can be inserted in the larger part. In cheap pamphlet-work a section of 32 pages may be made by insetting one subsection of 16 pages within another section of 16 pages, but these thick sections
an appearance of slight crooked-
are not tolerated in book-work.
ness in the margins of the inner
The library book must be sewed
with thread, either by hand or by machine, and sections must not
be too thick in the back.
Even
in the ordinary sewed section of 16 pages, to stop buckling on the
inner fold, it is often necessary to slit the paper on the cross-fold at head before the last fold is made. This prevents wrinkling, but it does not entirely prevent
leaves.
334
Books are sewed, not side-stitched
margin is the most approved method of giving proper security to the binding. It may be assumed that in all schemes of book imposition (the halfsheet of 18mo excepted) each section must contain double leaves.
The leaves are always in doubles,
and the number of pages in approved schemes of imposition are always multiples of four. The double leaves in each section show that they bear relation one to another.
In the ordinary 8vo,
pages 1-2 and pages 7-8 constitute the outer double leaf ; in the 16mo, pages 1-2 and pages 15-16 eonstitute the outer double leaf. Schemes for laying pages differ greatly, but the relative position of the first two and the last two pages of a section is unalterable in any scheme. A closer study of the different schemes yet to be presented will show that
these pages and other pages have relations to one
another‘that cannot be disturbed by any variation
1 The single leaf of two neatly fastened by the sewingthat may appear in the pamphlet thread through the centre of the
of a half-sheet 18mo ispasted lap. down on an adjacent le single leaf ulso has tobe:
Single leaves of two pages
This can be securely fastened to other sections by side-stitching with e wire or thread
through the back
print-
ing, but pasting or tipping on is stitehing is a method of binding
always regarded asa misfortune at present unavoidable in magato be avoided. To prevent the zines of large edition or in pam-
bad workmanship produced by phlets that have to be made in pasting down the singlek great haste, but it has serious ‘map or print, itis often printed defects: it reduces the width of
separa
| the back margin, and prevents
@ narrow lap is creased on its leaves from opening flat. It is extra width, so that it can be never used for library books,
Folds of paper control imposition
335
All schemes may be grouped in these four classes: 1
Forms of 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 96, and 128 pages.
The sheet of 16 pages is usually imposed to be folded together as one section, the sheet of 32 pages is often cut to make two sections, and that of 64 for four sections.
2
Forms of 12 or 24 pages, and their multiples.
In forms of this class one third of the paper is cut
off and folded separately as an inset to be nested in the two-third portion.
In the form of 12mo the
cut-off is on the narrow side; in the 24mo on the wide side of the sheet; but forms of duplicate twelves, as in 48 and 72, are seldom imposed for offcuts and insets: it is customary to impose them
as sections of 16mo.
Preference is always given
to the 16mo section wherever its use is practicable.
3 Forms of 18, 36, and 72 pages.
Sheets printed
on forms of this class are usually cut in unequal sections taken respectively from the broad and the narrow end of the paper, and are separately folded by hand.
The 18mo of one signature, never used
in careful book-work, contains a single leaf that must be tipped on the section. 4 Forms of 20 and 40 pages.
Printed sheets of
these forms have one fifth of the paper cut off from one end of the sheet, and this one-fifth subsection of the sheet is separately folded for an inset.
The consecutive folding of a sheet, first through its narrower diameter and next at right angles
with its previous fold, as is done in 8vo and 16mo
forms, is the simplest method and produces the best work. Forms of the second class are more troublesome, but they have to be used when paper permitting the 16mo folds is not to be had, and when a press to take on 16 pages is not available. Forms
of the third and fourth classes are rarely used, but are needed for pages or paper of unusual shape.
Schemes of imposition are also known as sheets or half-sheets.1_ The pages of the sheet are always imposed as two forms in two chases, and each form is separately printed. The side that contains the first and last pages of the section is the outer form ; the side partly concealed by the folding-bolts is the inner form.
The printed sheet made perfect by
two forms is known as a sheet, and this method of doing presswork is known as sheetwise. The pages of the half-sheet imposition are always imposed in one chase.
The paper selected for it is
consequently twice the bigness of the sheet printed from two forms, and its printing on the two sides
of the paper from the same pages necessarily makes two copies to the sheet. It is called half-sheet because this larger sheet must be cut in halves before
either half can be folded. Sheetwise printing was unavoidable when sheets were of small size and presswork was done on small
leading words: they should be vitcnderiesding!s esta 1 Sheet an@half-sheet are mis- but I shall try to prevent
sheet and double sheet. Itisim- by specifying the number of practicable to ignore them, for pages to the form and the num-
‘they have been used too long, ber of sections to the sheet,
:
Some rules controlling imposition
337
hand-presses, but the cylinder machine, that prints 16 and 32 large octavo pages at one impression,
has made the half-sheet method more corhmon.!
FORMS
OF
FOUR
AND
EIGHT
PAGES
The four pages of the folio newspaper are usually put in two chases and are laid down in this order: —A4
1~—
eoeteeopeennees
PU
TY OUEUODORTOOROOD
a
Genetieegent MDUCOtonetente
APUCUnaenteeas
SOUEDORT OOO
Heeuanaonatceas
Outer form.
COOOL
Inner form.
1 Four pages in two forms and two chases.
This scheme exemplifies rules that control imposi-
tion in every form, however large that form may be. The first page is usually laid down on the stone at the left corner.
As printing reverses position
in print, the left-hand page of type in the form will be the right-hand page of print. The last page of every section is always nearest
to and is the mate of its first page. All odd pages are imposed to read from back to front; even pages from front to back. 1 Each method has advantages and disadvantages. Sheetwise presswork allows the printed ink of the first form to dry before the sheet is backed up on the other form, but it also allows
wet paper to shrink, and gives more troublein making register. 22
Half-sheet presswork on short editions may not allowink to dry thoroughly, but it gives to the pressman at the outset more control of register ; it enables him to maintain more even color, and to make sure of full count before he lifts the form from press.
Relations ofpages one to another
338
When the page figures in every two mated pages
(those side by side and nearest to each other) are added, the result of this addition is one more than the total number ! of the pages in that section.
To print four pages by one impression, the pages must be put in one chase to be printed on paper of
double size.
A AVSOROgTOCaenS
peanstovecgeced
The sheet so imposed is
known as a half-sheet of 4to, because it produces, when the sheet has been printed on both sides, eight pages of
o
—_-
—
print, or duplicates of the four pages in the shape of two half-sheets. After
1—
—A4
the paper has been printed on one side, the pressman turns the sheet upside down and “end for end,”
B 2 Four pages in one chase.
which operation puts the edge A in
the position before occupied by edge B, and vice versa.
This makes him
print page 1 upon the back of page 2,
1 The operation of this rule may be seen more clearly in the separation of a section of several
pages: Take an ordinary quarter quire of six double leaves and page them consecutively as if
they were the cut leaves of a sheet of 24mo. Then separate the double leaves and add together the paging figures of the mated pages:
1—24
4—21
7—18
2—23
5—20
8-17
10—15 11—14
3—22
6—19
9-16
12—13
The result of each addition will be 25, one more than the total number of pages in the section. The relative position of the mated pages cannot be changed in any scheme of imposition; they are mates and always must be mates. An understanding of this rule will often prevent the
novice from laying down a page in a wrong position. If in the half-sheet of 24mo he has laid down 15 or 17 by the side of 9, he will know by mental calculation that the page is wrongly placed.
Turning on. the short cross
339
and page 4 upon the back of page 3.
Paper so
treated is said to be “turned on the short cross,”
or the short cross-bar of the chase.
When printed
on the second side, the sheet is cut in two, and each half-sheet 1s the duplicate of the other half.
This half-sheet of quarto can also be printed in one form from a long and narrow strip of paper by imposing the pages in this manner: sppasasenagcane
CRORTRONRCDENAD
CUSDDROOTEREODD
Meepeneaed aay
POL]
TIT
teen
OdTebananeaties
QUOODUUDCORRONO
snbatoenegaente
tebepnansapenee
OU DOUOSDENOOODEUE Areastaneaaet aRseaDepnganees
i!
aepnennaveaate
Oheueeveneaee
sin eopenatenseagey OODepeoeetaeee PEDDORGRODONTOD
VODEODANagAaNUe
3
Herbborpenzoean Veppseauppoenns Ohne
Gerpageanas OUREepbaeases OOTODbabeaaarae COPED etCabeenat
enna ansanaentna
TTITTL TERETE sepesueataenens peenpoencesgeue
Coneueranggaoes MTL itl) Cnbegesonensned avaveenennaonee
syeupaneagensay
COeeSoonapneete
Roneanegnonoeds Dongoreneoagete Oaaeaeoaan nets Teeepeebanaee
thapavengoagenn
Four pages in one chase, long way.
OOOTETDONOOUOOD versnesagnee
Husennaenaiees PHOpeaapantans OU OUUUeneaserenae Chev eRDDOUtHOND CO CGUUTRADeug NOS OU
OSPUORCDEDTEEDD
4
ORUURREDEEDENS ORRODESRUANODRE
SEDeU beac Ena GARdbagenaniany
epeeenbenasete
Wbeenvvponeaene
easenangognny OUSEREUEREED Npostuegsenite Vpseaneasaatae apepanenaeeenrt Onspneneasaten? topenesserten Opnenenanaaste
Heese ceeennny HUD OU Tees EL Vapeenanagentay CUSOREMATHLENS Ganpeonpannane ooninarguaraegg
Oppesoenagennes OCODNDNUDAbEOES OU Usanecapenceta OT) OUasoaepecneree Conenenpianen canpopanpnanrad treabonscnaeg SORDADNNTONAENE
FUEUDERGERDOAND
Four pages in one chase,
imposed from the centre.!
To impose with propriety any form that has to be made perfect upon pages in the same chase, it should be known at the outset whether the sheet will be perfected by turning it on the short cross or the long cross.
-
The turn on the short cross is
1 Scheme 4 is not so generally acceptable as Scheme 3, but it May be used with advantage when the inner pages 1 and 2 are open and the outer pages 3 and 4 are solid. As ink tends to
collect at the ends of the inking rollers, and as excess of ink on open pages is a trouble to the pressman, it is sometimes of advantage to put solid pages at the
ends of the form.
340
Thick sections a fault
always preferred, for it allows the pressman to
keep the same edge of the sheet to the feed-guides.!
Before any scheme of imposition is determined for a large form, the thickness of the paper should
be known.
If there are too few pages to a section,
there will be too many sections in the book, the cost of sewing will be largely increased, and the
book will be made bunchy at the back by excess of thread.
If too many pages are put in a sec-
tion, the sheet will buckle or wrinkle at the head
of the innermost fold; all leaves will open stiffly,
showing the sewing-thread; and the inner leaves will protrude unequally and have margins askew.? Scheme 5, on the next page, shows that this form of 64 pages, when backed on itself, has to be cut in eight sections to make four duplicates of 16 pages. 1The turning of the sheet on the long cross, sometimes unavoidable, is unwillingly accepted by the pressman, for it compels him to present another edge of the paper to the feedguides when he prints the second side. A new feeding-edge may compel him to register by
points, a much slower process. 2 Books or pamphlets to be distributed gratuitously, and that must be made at the smallest cost, like almanacs, trade catalogues, and advertisements of patent medicines, are often made up in thick sections to save expense in sewing. Sections of 32 and 48 pages are not uncommon,
but their folding, sewing, and
trimming are never so neat as
those of sections of 8 and 16. Thick sections are never to be seen in the books made for the library by reputable publishers. Although sections of 16 pages are more used than any other, these sections: are not always printed on separate sheets. A section of 16 pages may be a part of a form of 48, 64, or 96 pages. Even in the thick pamphlets of 48 pages intended to be centre-
stitched in one section, the pages are, as a rule, laid so that the
sheet will be cut in thirds, making three sections of 16. Each section is separately folded; the second is nested in the first, and the third in the second.
342
Furniture for marginal space
In ordinary forms of half-sheet presswork, page 2
is put in an opposite corner or in a contrary direc-
tion from page 1, so that the backing of the sheet will bring page 2 on the back of page 1; and the first folding of the sheet at a right angle will bring
3 opposite 2; and the last cross-fold will bring page 9 opposite 8.
That done, all intermediate pages
aye in order. The even page will back an odd page when the sheet has been turned, and the following
odd page will face the even page when another regular fold has been made.
This repeated cross-
folding of the sheet brings the innermost pages
within the interior of the section, so that the last four leaves will be mates of the first four leaves.
In every imposition, whether in the “ usual way” or “from the centre,” long fold or cross fold, the
pages must occupy the same relative position one to another, however peculiar the scheme or however large the number of pages in the form.! 1It is to be supposed that a diagram has been previously given to the maker-up to define the shape of the page and to specify the width of the margins about the pages. This diagram sheet should be prepared in the office or by the foreman before the pages are made up. To require the stoneman or the maker-up to cut furniture and determine margins will be found wasteful of time and productive of error. The furniture should be selected before the pages are laid.
The only pieces that can-
not be accurately measured or
specified on the diagram are the thin pieces nearest to the crossbars, which will be of varying width to suit the variable thickness of the cross-bars. The headbolts and thin cross-bar pieces can be put in their places afterward. A sheet of the paper to be printed should also be furnished tothestoneman. The proper adjustmentof margins by this sheet hasbeen illustrated on pages 299, 303, and 304 of this book. Exactness in measurement by this sheet is of great importance.
Chases to be carefully selected
343
In the ordinary imposition of 16mo, page 1 appears
in print upon the first leaf of the first half of the
sheet that has opened leaves on the front, and page 9 upon the first leaf of the other half of the sheet that is closed by the bolts of folded leaves. But the pages can be imposedto be folded in another
way: page 1 can be placed on the leaf taken by page 9 in the usual scheme of imposition.
When pages
have been so placed and the sheet is folded in this
reversed way, the first leaf of the bolted half is
thereby made page 1. (See Scheme 18.) This method
of reversing is called imposing from the centre.! When the pages have been truly laid on the stone, the furniture selected should be put next to the pages.
It is to be supposed that the length and
width of each piece have been previously determined, so that no piece will interfere with another, and that all will yield gently to the pressure of locking up.
The selection of the chase is next in order. Pages
to be electrotyped are usually imposed in chases of
cast-iron that hold two or four 8vo or three, six, or eight 12mo pages.
These chases should have
1 The odd page put down in an ordinary scheme of imposition of 16mo as 3, 5, 7, or 9 can be used to place the first page, if following pages are put in correspondingly reversed positions. Page 1in the outer corner of the sheet is most acceptable to folders by hand, but the makers of a few of the newer folding-
machines have to put page 1 in some other position to enable them to make use of proper mechanical motions in the machine. It should be clearly understood that a changing of the position of page 1 to the place usually occupied by some other odd page will compel corresponding changes of position in every other page.
344
Cross-bars need testing with square
frames about one and a half inches wide and three quarters of an inch high, to enable the iron fairly
to resist the great pressure put on the form by the moulding-press. The old cast-iron chase for plaster
stereotype, with frame one inch wide and two thirds of an inch high, that still survives in some houses,
is liable to crack under this pressure. If the chase is not square, the plate will not be square.!
The form of four or eight small pages, made up for letterpress, may be imposed in a cast-iron chase, but cast-iron is not to be trusted for any large book form. When the form is locked up, the frame will
bend outward in the middle on each side, putting pages out of line and making register difficult. For all forms containing many pages, and even for forms of few pages that call for exact register, the wrought-iron chase, with slotted and dovetailed
cross-bars, should be selected to prevent the outward bending of the chase frame and to provide right-angled sides as resists to the pressure produced with side-sticks and quoms.
The chase se-
leeted should be tested by a square on the intenor
angles made by cross-bars.
If the dovetails do
not fit snugiy. or if the slots at the mtersection of
the bars are loose and wabbly. these faults should 1 Trustworthy apperatus, the noticed. Authors and publishers first condition of good printing. of to-day are much more critical is needed now more thanever. A slight deviation from squareWhen presswork was done from ness repeated on the pages of a small forms upon small hand- large form is not only offensive presses. out-of-squareness in a to the reader, but is a hindraace page or a form often passed um- to the pressman and binder.
Stamped numbers on cross-bars be corrected at once.
345
They cannot be corrected
properly after the form has been locked up. The methods that are customary in the imposi-
tion of large forms are sometimes unwisely neglected in small forms.
A circular of
GOVeReeROReTUOe Bhtsegeoconenns sant
‘
two pages, to be printed on the first
and third pages of the sheet by one impression, should be imposed in one
form as four pagesof 4to. Two pages of blanks should be made upto represent pages 2 and 4, and be imposed
as if they were pages of type.
ities
To
impose the third page by guessing 6 A circular of
at the blank required for head and
2 pages only, the print on first and
back margins is never a safe process. third pages.
The blank pages are really needed as guides to correct position. 1 Chases with shifting crossbars seldom receive proper care. The chases and their detached bars are usually stood up against a dead wall, where they are bent by the superincumbent weight of other chases and bars piled against them. They are often allowed to get bruised and rusty. The bars are sometimes used as pokers or levers. Bars made for one chase are sometimes violently forced into another; slots and dovetails may be refiled and clumsily altered. Under this rough treatment the chase may be twisted and made more crooked than the cast-iron chase. Chases should be bought with
system; theremeed not be many sizes, but there should be many of the same size. As cross-bars are not made interchangeable, each bar should have its own number stamped on its dovetail,
and on the frame nearest to its corresponding slot in the chase. Under no circumstances should the cross-bar made for one chase be forced into another chase, for this change damages two chases. When many chases of one size are provided, and each chase is numbered, the time spent by the stoneman in fitting new forms with furniture and by the pressman in adjusting margins will be sensibly diminished.
346
Small sheets with insets INSET
FOLIOS
OF USUAL
FORM
Account-books and diaries are sometimes printed
on single sheets of flat cap (14 x 17 inches), with dates and figures following one another in proper order.
The sheet of small size is selected because
editions are small, and larger paper may not be _ had of proper size, weight, and quality.
Sheets so
treated are usually made up in sections of fives, and are sewed in the usual way through the longer fold.
The heads of pages must be kept in parallel
line, but the arrangement of pages in other features
does not differ from that laid down for the legal folio.
To prevent error, a dummy of each section
should be made on leaves of blank paper, properly
paged in writing, so that the dummy will serve as a guide to stoneman, pressman, and proof-reader. For the first section the order will be: First sheet.
Second sheet.
Third sheet.
+* Fourth sheet.
1
20
3
18
5
16
7
Charest TELE
RE ea
OCOREAREDUSEIEO
«| OtetROrerenene
boatenee TUVETED
VUDDODORSOSDOUE
PERCE
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| GUUCCUAUOS Ete
Gaetan veseuaee
ee
POOLS OU
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qn nh " wae
CEREDUCURGDURED | Oeatteneansee 1
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CONOEUERDEUHO® «— OUPOESisonededt CHUTE PNOOTTSOTG | OUadeeatbeone tl
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14
Fifth sheet. 9
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|
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Outer forms. *
Geegne tee
PUPADEEDODOUEE
CUOCSOUOPUNDESD
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GEOL NCOEEEDOUEE
CEPOL
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6
6TI
Ue
MOCSUDTONENTEGE | CUboteueNtntets
Minami PUL WONdCarengagaen | CUPODDOOROOCTOE OURO UOC CU OULU UU UUEDaetbonene OUUCPOTUataL tesetpeeteeniag OO Vetucee Ue CLL COND ooeepetioee | GueSbasedceanat
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su
OUCOUUCDAUUEAUG «| poagdooraearere Gorveteareeette nits awine SUN oeanouarent TOEUACEEDneeee CCTCUEUELT UAE Me Veoenetiegne CUPOGDAREDDONOG «| OeeddertbenotY Eerste ANetsnneneteiaa UCD Skt ee Ee CUED) ee (tet US cat erecta CePeeeanennitns scegteercecens Gitdeonbarenn t UU Oe CUUNMGOEDUUESER | Coebovetagetagt SRUCHOUGTENBHNG AETUROUDDOtEOHE CUROUDUEODCSEtG | GUURMessieeraNS GUGUGGUOGORGEDO «| Cuattovetauregs CUCURDUORUEEITE | BORDCQCTOTSOUNG
V
7
LI
CUOUEACGUCEUNGE | PRET RDDOGERIONE
9
CT
Inner forms.
PHEUEDUNECD OTERO hCDCnteseaaane
Witenes \ vecooniel in wee boarenetny ma qUCeEtegnedgas Geneberee reat cunntuartnestt TTT shovetrrea UO Cresteenen PEUSEERUnegaate OUD UL eG serdeon OOCTORTONNTTIDE | Chaeeenasanates
COURSE eeLe
8
El
TUODOOUGEAOOGES
ha
Ut
t
Gereeeeenpogee sunoteneageety
GUETOUUUEDGCEIG — GOUETONOgggEte ee 40 OUONd CORN HOES ua FATROTEO | OFOHENCGROGgODS ut ui tihee Weieeete u ' a nntatis Oteben tn ue tunedin iuitaanasetnt
avasensaete TLLMw QUGteUenneegdee
| Geccuteenaeees
Ol
An inset folio of 20 pages in ten forms.
Signatures at the tail of each sheet are seldom made, but they may be helpful to an inexpert.
The legal folio
347
The legal folio is preferred by lawyers for docu-
ments, and is usually printed in four-page forms imposed the long way on the size of paper known as double legal-cap, 16 x 26 inches.
the usual methods of book-work.
It reverses
Its leaves are
fastened at the heads of odd pages; the heads of odd pages are backed upon the tails of even pages ; its print is read by turning the leaves the long way
on the short fold; it has a wider margin at the left than at the right of the page.
The number of
copies ordered is usually too small to warrant the imposition of more than four pages to the form, even when there may be six or more sheets for
the document.
It is always imposed to be sewed,
stitched, or eyeleted together in one section only, whether that section contains few or many pages.
To produce the wider margin required at the left of each page, the furniture selected for the gutters must be about twice as Wide
as that given to the ordinary side-
aun, | smn
it
sewed book. The pressman can keep
equal outer margins.
As the sheet
is creased or folded at the head, the
than is customary in the ordinary imposition.
Each sheet turns on the’
long cross, the duplicates so made
being separated by cutting through the longer fold.
Geenecenegenae OEaeOUNad nas TU Cqueesaguanonns
aa
OOUUUOGRttals Denccupecengans
“"" | TM ¢. 1
ithe
init
OUUCUOCOREDEDS =
GUAUECOEE TELE
Wrseabeneeggaee |S er
ANG RN DanOantaE CLI
z
8. Legal folio
of 4 pages.
This cut should be made with pre-
cision, for the margins will not permit retrimming.
348
Eight oblong pages
First sheet. 16
onpeonsecgeonss
Seeond sheet.
Third sheet.
Fourth sheet.
aL| so i)
‘
4 4
apsgetnae
Odegeecorgasets
sapnanesagescns a
Hiees
“HHHi
Tr!
oasite vaassuens ub
ST
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sisi Od
"
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CONN EORDeRaaeeD
COORG RG ARLEN TEN.
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*
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Pte)
5
sien!
ONTEMaseoabeNE
Obsenenssadeel
aoeusatesecensa
apbansocapaggae Oedeantognases
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Spkeedaesagas
Beorgesnensosi
CNpeeienonsane Shodesagvennege
OUSENEOROEDS CES
Pov stendreas os
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un PETES
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CU
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qutesuetatnese
oosensennngoned
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m cetate ageaes
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mbaennens aunhaie
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sbuseaaseoseaae
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SOnsanegtaganee
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abassaseusauase
Gacnasensatataa
Socenteeecesaaa
SOSteoDaed anes
POU
onnaste
obehaareacgusce
9 Legal folio of 16 pages, imposed for insets. MUSIC
OR
OBLONG
WAY
Some books of music and of maps or illustrations are planned for a short and broad page that must be sewed on the narrower side Mating
The section so
ir
of the leaf.
—e_
treated, known as of oblong
tania anne
DOSItiIOn of the pages and ad-
shape, requires a different imiamiaintine
relative position of the pages to their mates and to one an-
other must be the same as in the ordinary method of imposition.
wa
This sheet has to be
folded for its first fold the
10 Eight pages in one broad way of the print; on its form, oblong way.
—_—_ second, the narrow way.
Duplicates in the same form Kight
pages
from the
imposed
centre
differ
from eight pages in the
UT Dee Rb esOeD Cuereenertetens OSOCHULESSOUAL Qaeeeueneteges PUTER UU OROOetTONeUeata Deneeeraeenaaal OOCUUGECASUE ON
bUaeanaenceaeas —
usual way only in the transposition of the two halves of the form. The
pages in each quarter are precisely the same.
—
—
—
——
CU
Bocteestedgnia
SUPVNCOGRODGOTS
A
a!
beemcgeanegeane PUL
WOCNTTEOOTbOteE
Gpotaceesannane AEEPebecegnes
GUPeeeoneeens OOeeaueeecetgnl
CONCLONOT Oe UONE
HONTOReanEaeae
COneaeentbaner Coebeeeenoian ehersantcantitt aubebereaneaigy
CASRODURDUGabEE BONUOReOatbeten
CHUCCCRT TOTO QUCUUSCeeeaae
PU
11 Sescebonaganiee
Genheueeeetnale
COOOL Gepenpeenauaays
Oeeeeenaneaels
Ceatecaartgent
Vareeetenegaeee
ITU Sa Coaeppeeeeneene
Sabaeneegeenae
SUERTE
OOOO} POUR LEO Ge POUL ey
CUUeeneretceed CHeennateeorel Peed taeeegieey
taPPOUS nea
POU
Oe
'
Tienneaaas
PULL
SECROOCROO NBO geD
—
— UE
ruitenennnyntt CULL
GENO SGHERtE Ubageee
HOOUe ACen OURS OReanenegal
Duesdangagerage obaebonecenecas
Eight pages in the usual way. HedeDenceegears
OOUUERROLOEOOED POPRCOHLONUEHND
OOFETOUUUEEERDD
OOUL BODEN DDC OES PLL
DOLCE
COOLODEUDOR DEE GuueOeansegbane
OUUDeRuaaOnate
ed
UR Ohedeeuenearoet
CURE CCOCCUOULE tat
areas
'
t
POO
CUURTOCEODUTOED
5
—
— 2
—
Canseneaeeennt
OURCTALUOU ERAN OUOAUOUeOGeaDs
POE CETPOOesTeg alt CSUR OTERO
OUeeaseoruaneds ‘
at
TOL COLeneeeetetes
OO
—
—
Dasrerececgans
OU
POODPOUDAO BOOED
COONS
Connecotounee
QeDeeUeeeea ent
Des ePeeeaeans CUpeeareaale
voiatbaas PU
SOEDDOUSDORSERE PULL
UTED Geupeceenoeaene
UU Peegnesnoateo
DUURDOUOEORD ODE Goavapesannages
CUE Desegeaeengnal
coceneeeegannt PUGUOLEUUS NESS
Seuegeuatoeoes
Geaneeeapeugage
PULL |
POUR
Ly
ECOL
pages 8 and 7 must be,
Fateeebap anaes
ROGEORL URED bb
for each side, one half (no
between pages 1 and 2.
—
CUE UO
Scheme 12 has been se-
more, no less) of the blank
ED CUCUDOTTTGTAT
—
POU
llare transposed. When
of paper on the outside of
CUncegeneraeans
Ceseeesensnite Cee GUCUNCOOT EEUU OROUOCUUNNConte DORDACUOU RR t OUSTOObOSD OTberoeereeee ' Vooetgnens Veegsneent Cunedeegat
Conaceenenatgat
CO
lected, the white margin
Seeepnanaegnge
349 Pg OUOTOUOSOUBD GEG hecconegeeeaal CUUUonens CUT TTUSS COUN ANTUUCDRREL EROS ViGuereeeeons Oy HOOUTOODEOETEGD Gantecgeengnny
—
CUCU
In Scheme 12 the right and left halves of Scheme
UODOCRCRIIEUANE Ceavpporneagaal VERTU ‘ Varnes OOUNGULURCUEEDE Paeeodupengendd VOVOOTUNUGs GUUSURUAAROOGE OUTETOTEONR GONE Geeuaecnunegaie
HOODRORO ODA EES
POOL DEUCE
CUUEADCCOOOEOUE
Oenconsnuonnans Depagnanaceanae
PO
OOEADDD
Comeeneettsens
DATEOOCOOOESEER
Geegrecuiogsane Detesaenecgaee
Gaepeurnacenans
Geseaceccacages
PU
12 Eight pages imposed from the centre.
“Two on” (Scheme 18) is a phrase often used to describe the filling of a form with two (and someHee
Gorcertabenacas
UUCGUUL CELE LG
OeUnuectavectt
Caeganneenett
PORE
SUUTCRE TEU UEC RONee RET Ua Goueeccseengued
VUeCeTdaaae QUUOESEEOtG Get Ceroteae Obasoeusnoetied
UR
o
—
—
CUUEDOUOCOOTteD POUL seenseganls
Uuetense
SOUS eUP TON
Orenasaupnauest
UU Qenbeaseeeonees
13
suevaeeaniret
CUATA RU NaB haat
UM UU OsPadeenssend
BREnibetnaggrtt
ie SUCH oerener COPEROUORadioet
og
Gesebacee nal
Ouekececeainene
Veta
suereedacaien
Gepabeosvaveney
CURE DeRate Rane enaertest Rb CUNS SUUUOeoeeRteoNe Ey 1
—
—
—
2 —
CUASSUEUDSUDUGE
PEPER SUTTERTEUSE
Heed eeerbounsed ehetcoecenerapa PL
UU ata ODOUR COreeseageg
eereadeasber
CULUotocerened PARE a
$
Seadeocuniceiit Gaeteeene Pe
i)
CECE UPOCUDEOes
Vasa
—
Sbrncenseegatae
)
inn UVeedoree
boneeusagen
—
HOUEO GORE OD UNES
te we ues
Gortacseuspeats
Gevgeuunaal
uw
Huesanueseuenee
ut
sUeuenees
Ment
PU
Aa nn NTH
Gaiont Te) ee iniin nts HORT UL tae Ubetunne ivalueVesavecnecet iecunneneenatd cee t TOUTE
TTEOU We QUccUUUOOERURTE | agedetd Ceegned | WEES PLY PUTCRODORUOTODE wastengbadectet Lu CCUUCDECEA TD PevceUegncyaye OCPTDGEROGOBUGE QUATersubonuedl
Eight pages in two sections of but 4 pages only, often known as ‘‘two on.”
times more) duplicates of the same type or plates. It is frequently practised
to utilize a large machine, to lessen the number of impressions and to save needless expense.
The
first and last four pages of a book can be so imposed with advantage.
Three octavos in one section OULURCORDUCNOES
CUaenaboegetita
sorepeneansens
Venepcopnoniess Vpnpebensearans Uopineebsse ' Oebnaaegegon i]
tepppeogsnoea ' ‘
POU
Ooengessnanee SOPDTO ODORS ONEE
pebeseutes sand
bapaeenegnas 1
opeaesassannet
SUODEROADUCNOSE
COOeDbeDaRNue
Vortonacesiesd
The triple scheme 14 ex-
‘x iat
emplifiesthreehalf-sheets
Veneset eneeet
ht
vite
'
i]
imposed in three forms, to be inset so as to make
UDCabacunonones '
Adeeataaearey QUgsgbeEnenON Ohaenegesoee
penaecnnauioos
Oespeesgcoesean
init: ii §~ 24 pages to one section. oo
total of every pair of mated pages is always
Outset of section.
usa samme
205 (2) that the twelve
nunnt amt §=— the first half of the secUT
8 “ mu
we "LT
—
— 20
Qneregeapeatede ==
Oeneaceonpeens
tion are at the ends of each sheet and the other half in the centre; (38)
that the last pages of
the outset occupy relatively the same position as pages 5, 6, 7, 8 in the ordinary octavo; (4) that the first four pages of
the first inset occupy the position of the first pages in the ordinary octavo. When this order is well UU)
COUPER UCU) ee
UU
Second inset.
14
Eight-page forms in three
chases, to be inset to make
one section of 24 pages.
understood, imposing of inset sections
in many
forms may be done without the aid of a diagram previously prepared.
Sixteen and thirty-two pages
301
Eight pages may also be imposed the long way of
15
crater
Cenesrenues
POUL
—
the page after Scheme 15, which is sometimes used
Eight pages, 2 wide, 4 high.
to utilize offcuts of paper. This scheme, although not often used, may be needed for offeuts and long pages on a sheet of odd shape. — Obbeeanesoagetd
—
—_
OU
—
boneenecaegenan
OURS URbonnecene
DUReOROOUREGaNe
oueevonacegaens
esounnageonsedt
Ocaubeapevaraes
SUUUUGSUSOS ERNE
Covnseubanourt
UO
Ocseteavatoceny
COODUDROUOUDNOE
OOOUSPODDOR OOO
OObOUNUREUDAODE OCUDDEOEDTT GON CUsppeneaagunne ceepesnina OgPoUeapoaneyoe ' Opepenspnaneasy
Geopbueeonoaas
Uy Gpanegaoaneanss sesueneanennur 1 peceencteaneane OUODOUOLPRR RONG
16
—
—
6
COURDDODeBebea
Carer nenaanaese
OOURedeoetnset
TOUOTRDEOOSONUD
SUEGDOTEECRSOES
Suda boOnGeRtON
Oneeendaaabeane
aasupeanante
Vseeonecgnaeut
tats
'
—
—
APOU NEUE TROND
shueseapeeanaas
Caneteeat balan
oeseteebonneans
OCUEROCCNENNESG
OE
i]
Oeneeseuenanes
ORUUEBOODaSEOND COUUUCAeR EER COURROOnbUnENR ouneneneooeture Cocecvoratpesnl (bpeunneraneses
earaeeny eOsbeceroneeae weeny UU mit “ oponecegtaraeds
SUOEIETabto CTS OEabenaeneeed Heceqonanetle OLGeNnOpnataOEE Uber cenagaret PetHD Deepest
UU Sanedeeenecane LOU UU) Couseonsanass HOURON ARON NGO
HT ' Coenenepnogaann CODER AaSGn esas QDUUEBDagbanage bonnsaneagoagna
Odocagsvecgnced SUCOOUENSOUROEE sUdeeesenengend SCudeaenanaene waucaneoegeags Gapagaoneesaans
OORgS ED vesbenee
OORtSaibaneagye
PU
Cashuaeenonegae
wuppsanegagoons
Gureanuesanagns
LL
Eight pages for an offcut of paper.
This is another scheme for eight pages, which also
shows the unalterable position of mated pages.
SIXTEEN SUEDEUUDEOUOOR Vegeceaeuensets Feoenaagtaseras OUesneneangenee aueedaceneeaeys OU abbenpeacanands Uheteneretiaes CUO VEORGonensaaned
AND
DULL UE ahapdoonaanuies UOPRSTOUDRODEES SPURT OOULS OU Vecbepeaepeaens SUabesouonariet Ganseanoucetaal fegesegrpentent ChORDAGHDODBODe
OUROOERORDSREED OOPUTUPORETUEE OURURDERTO GHEE ' SUDDESODUOODOTE a t I Ouepenaarageres GUT ee basategee SUODROUEURTEUS CUDODOpcaoaeee
8 —
— 6
o—I—-
—&
1—
—16
13—
—4
Ouseneceegeenad
CUUDORRASOTENND ET Le La | Conedpaetonents Gnegeveangnegny ' hone OUsaNaayaananes TTT ETT CRODeeeeaeenes SRUUORORGURIDUE OeDoerecoanaly OOURODONDODESES
CUCU CU LoL
COCORODaRDeenES VOUURERUOGEUGED TEUERODSUOSEITD UUADEDEEoOdee SRUVERCRDUEAEE URUROCROReaeens TPT STP UOGUSODEOESUNED COTCRRROTeauas TPUPE UCU RPeL |
CUDREREEUONTOND
OOURDCONCaSoRee CRBBORDORBOdEOS WUPROURSoeabay OUSCORURTTOHaD OTORSaRAgCdEeD OTUUReRaauray on ' CUPNCctbogeas Copnoreoeeluny TETRIS Gras CUTER OONENGaN
Outer form.
17
SUDO UOORODDEOEE OaeeeeUDenaens CUUUO CaN aD OUOLnTReabeRG SOUUNNSTOCEUG weesateancyaae UEC CORSET CU ete a
UU
SUUORU USER DATS SUPREOAORODORS WOreaeeneenrans COUGuaranaegs CERPRDT OCDE GOES Vonpennenggrany WOURGaL tations oh toeenng UODERIpOOobnR RPE TELUGERMEER EOE
THIRTY-TWO OOnarodeseabons OEATUODODOROONG SOUDAORbaaeaNNe Cuoveueeanenat VUNG OUD ENON Ceenaeaeeneeyey Veeoedanaropare oaeeannenenady UL SONUUDOMNNCTOND
PAGES
OLORUAORSES EGOS SUSOROUOERORED COPERUDROONTOED CUbanatengeoate PUDRGUbOUgataeD CLOU DDE ANOROUNS CUDUSOROUgoNa Ubosaeeeenaas SURUODORUROEADT CORORPERTNNENG
SEROUROORAESED AUbODUISOOUEED CANUTE ODOT OOD Cpunsereansens sets Suepesuenensaag SUUTEESCUTb CEO SUUUONUbeRLANS 1 i "a
9—-
~—Tt
OI—-—
3—
14
15—
Cobeebpategetne
OUTDO RGOREOONS OTOP ROOORUDOGEE OPPheaeeenaued evenetogn CHOROeaseeennag VSUORRADIOT NOOR COOUdaoreecgage CURPUGGODDODERE TOS OUUUASOBON Case GUUERRRODERONND
SUE
|
OUOUNbOtaggaget PORUDOPUUDRUGEE HUPOOCUEDSN ERED OUDRORLONgOCg) ORESUCNacegraD OUROSbOMROGdNT DOSODUDOCASRODD SPUSUAOUCRIARDD SRUOUEOURACIUNS OOORGnDananaag’ CUREOEDOOUIUDOS
COOVSPUUSORTUUD OUNERONNEOEOANS
GCUeDURShanenay WORDOORNogaas STUPODODUG Cente CeReabeuaeteny ROLORURRSEOOONE Cenaepbonguaus AUOPORODEEBOORD SRATDORVUTDNeE RUDPORORDDRIORG SUUECROODODTOGR QUUNeCEnaeagase
Inner form.
Sixteen pages in two chases for one section.
UU Fapogeuapeecans ORUNUUROCROOaBD sbadecaesaegual SUUCOOUOUENT AE ORIDORASOOESOGL Soeebesbonal Phetaernaeuogte Oe OU COUEOUUCOUN ate
—Zzb
—2
TUOODTTER DOES OUPNROOEDODeaES GUUEDCeebanoreg CUPRAO eee SUDUETeceecaees SUUORPORONaENOS i] eheggaees SUOTROERTEDONEE OOCORERerpeauae ORDSRCUELOUoaEe TUES bR eta tae
302
Advantages of sheetwise presswork
In Scheme 17 the outer and inner forms are laid down side by side; but if the pages of the inner form were placed at the top of the outer form
(page 2 in the upper left-hand corner), and all were in one chase, the arrangement would be that of the usual form of sixteens.
(See Scheme 19.)
The outer and inner forms of the same sheet
should have the pages laid down in the two chases at the same time and in consecutive order.
Be-
ginning with page 1 of the outer form, pages 2 and
3 should next be put in the inner form.
Pages 4
and 5 will next be put in the outer form, to be followed by pages 6 and 7in theinner form.
This
successive alternation of two consecutive pages in
each chase will be continued until the last page is mated with the first page of the outer form.
One of the difficulties of sheetwise imposition is that of making register when there is a shrinkage of furniture in either form.
Another is its greater
liability to unevenness of color or of impression when the two forms are done on different presses
and by different pressmen.
But it has to be used on
rotary and perfecting presses that have been constructed to deliver the sheet perfect on both sides at one operation.
It is also used with advantage
for very large pages, and for illustrated work in which the ink on the cuts printed on one side of
the paper should be entirely dry before the second side goes to press.
When an unusually large num-
ber of pages has to be put on a sheet (as in three
Sixteen pages by two methods
sixteens to a 48mo in
two chases) the sheetwise
method is of service, but,
Geauecogeauaens
encagesonqagiee CUUbtnteseeetas Cungdengganees
OCrebegnedgease OOenabebonnanes ONNESadadeg nels
Sueur
Ooeetunadegnate
cotpectatcunag
Georpdeatdasaga
PU
CUO Lo Vncnaeegengeaes
epregeeanensgeg sabeseterte
POU aerbebenaaneats
ehatnasegues adegcereaitunts
303
cocuaregenaage
UeCneeeaeaaeet PU
cearneeegae
Gann cangngaiyy OU ERO aderbcenvecgeds auevegeans
Sureecunatoue
sbieotens
eebegecttreaee
oecevenanes
caaaasatenes Gucnenagugonene
Gabevaguracaas SORCRRCRDEONTE
Cecnnadeee Vereectecnages
Oecengonite ceenaegage
as a rule, the form that
ot —
—&
8 —
— 6
can. be printed perfect on
13 —
—A4
1—
—16
itself as a half-sheet is printed with more ease than if the pages were
imposed in two forms. Sixteen pages are also imposed from the cen-
tre. When the sheet has been perfected and cut in Oocuatugocgnons
Sevensnaegasses
CUO
voegnenpennages Opennensongnes
Panenoonsescens euecsgnnogny
nngnanneneseat sucnpauangantne
tee suntuepnanores
OOOO
Cry
aeenvornecenaad
Ohenarouenonoas
sucsenousggnga
voasnennoonncns
Sudenocennggags
CO
OOO
vanponoans
Caen en enenenees
OU
pnoengatetD
eUbedennogennes
Cootnnesane
Haba eecnensness |
Vanaueaeeioanes
oesennogtoncne
ebacteeneanqrag cangtetgqogna
cneseeenaunetns euveuueunauaens
TUL
erscagensesgans
Veenneaneatens
Casasaaeegnaene
tonengqang COOL
Oaatenopooggenl encnarnateqage
Satapeneengveas eesaesenaeanns
OveDEerengunne Aareogensauiene
—~ GT
4 Soe
— &
obotnonaagetote
venaguroegegags
Creccocentonee
Vareecniages
Caetseaneecentt
Hbepeneongtarad
POO Weebeeesetesite Lepeseccntenns
Goessateceagete suescenns
obhastonuconnns Geenaats
Valdtoeccensoee
Qeenseerscenten
Cavanancgugees OOOUOEEOENOLONE thet
OUROOPOOODSONND Ceebeeneent Veebenebeaneens
Chgevgereaas PEO begeceernnate
Otebeenrageneat
Vogqaaneetrans
Aiidenteenereds
toopeeereegl
UY Cennecenegettes
CUeteatanenets Thea sonaecatane
CO PTR O Lt
Ceoeneeeeeede AUODNNUUEEROEDS
etensononanegs
CU
Gneganacccenste
‘
seagenngneciee Weep bengnnacete agnnnengeceient
acenonasganyes Goebeacceoennes CoMsnenenanaee
ONNECaatanesens Ceestenestonr
PORTER aenneeee eteoenenaaegs
aboneceageeaiee
bertpenpencqart
saateacenanias atoesnadscarass Aoecneannngnale Hag dbertocetas Aoeenenaaparege
$u0ee
'
ovateanecgected oepebeagaggene Gepdetenoavedy Oopecegbeatanen Ceageaseanenns
FT —
— &
11 —
— 6
PU
PE
POU beuneeng
Centnonesogtane UL
RODUnEUeegeuans
PU Haesnocenagnens SUUOUORNUB GES Donepeanaagoat cones
PO isvenueasegur Wenpanannanuiee
Honeceneenedied Vepereeteenee
Caebonnesoueene
Cerone ibereaal
PeUnbeeurngans
PU cocncengan cunnecogeng DULCE ageeenet
Cnaneedenceeats Oaneasoornceant Heeneetoeseqens
— ct
—
7 =—
—10
aeugpaanogcnete Oondeonsogorese
Oorecceusonagee 4
Copeceresoorany
PU Conteasenanel
UL ehecgnagueonree
Vapdeontongegos
== teanes deena
eneenengenaies
adenesetenonii
QOORRONNSONNCED
=|
tneedoeaeet
ontetaseosourt
Cucpegnaate CCCRGecuenaeds
CoOdncueteeans
eer oooenneenad
Centaseenses
18
PURE Veecereocnnagd ofetantes toanet STOUSONCUEOEDD
Conetoosesnl Ceeteness
Cgecteanenenna Teatnenseogens
Gopoognerny
Coartbeovggeans
Vapeacgncganes
COUbueeSunaasEs
oaeeeancegenens
Oceggecpeul
cn
'
PO
PU
Obetenisetr
Sixteen pages, imposed from centre.
acnenensesnaans
Goneanonaceagn
OOUUnOogegaees
PETE
Aeueganeseees
CURL
PPTL |
Cueneeonanass
CUO
CU
Gereanagnaneats cegeeer
Veechonprageats '
oneeagas
PU
curecgans
Cauesgctantadad
PO
OUOUUnagaenaale
POO Sey
abontonsenegneg
oneeunagnecand
COO)
COO
oceunsnenncaags
Oecacuortactad
OU
Obaeadobonggags
OOUCUUOROOREOND
TOE EL
COOL |
Veerbereonadent
UTS
oaveceqnebanege
soeregvagennags
Unseaboccogeans
Ganegevegasaeta
POO
Voasseoteeenaes
Gnaeacautoegees
cenecenaenaqees
oreeasanren cans
Crenenaneneenge
COUN ROeSOPOTeS
UU
vontedscognens
et
Cuerens
POO
Soneneagesagns
two, page 1 will be the outer page of the section,
but the pages from 2 to 8 will be closed by bolts at
onnneongtuntes
OO
Vopetananecas
Heeeeatocgerers
suacseagenoneds
Cogenennennsas
Cvgtueduceuegt
dentnend
saueeurocesense
uneteoenenyt
Vesnceseagieya
OOO|
Seereanucabaegs TOU | COCO CUE
teeeasang teeeageceangan Usatanensauens Csoreonegegaee
Gobeeeborse Speteur teeneucusnorae Corpoceacenues
Gerspacgggiane CEU| vadebered POU
touovenenongnd
enueen
ante
cheeaseeserted
HOCROOReNN
UE
PO
a
— 6
Obeedeoentoseel
DUO
ot —
teeeeneeedaend
DOOR|
— &¢
eoee,
—
—
_
—
ogaeborenonened waghscenasgrent
Chrepereeeenene OE
POU oreeepaes
STE VORESGONNGUans
PO
ULL
Casednopogegnan
Waetnongdgeas
eset ienunaaant
eeeneegas
eaaegegtunagead
Sartegegetosigs
Volpeneaadoags
Veepeesosunaal
Gabbageneaenes
Cateeagioney
CPOUUOO GE
Hanae
Vebnegagngss
OO
|
COE
PO
CT
PO
rateonoanedd
CUURSNeAeaeaned NE}
Varta OU Ceousacesaeugys
CuPoneunsatones suobegetarenaee
Hengergenagags uae
CO
Oy |
Vatenevareete "
TOU
VONNdaaenndens
FOREDUO UOTE Cede
aObadecauessaue
TOURCEUSacenes
19
Sixteen pages as
usually laid.
23
head and side.
Imposing
from the centre reverses
the position of the bolts. Another method of 1mposing the 16mo from the centre can be followed by transposing in a body the
pages entire on each side of the short cross-bar.
Sixteen pages with an inset
304
T
oueeencnsoaaeds
eiadeatebedere
OUUSoooboetotes
Vederboasees
PU
Gbageae
Fhedeeraeetense
Ueorcedetopene OTE
thebeaneens
=
Gaccagegenrbere
VOaebaeenaetier
Caccccaggooural
PROEUGpSecaiant
Cuagageseseuee
PESEGDEDaNOTeDe UUsUCdeneaauoae
— 6
teaeibtoess CROnaseaa rete
—
—4
Vepeboorrdenged ‘ ereconenae CUReMateaeeeees
OSnnpnenaagaags VeLeSbepeguente Scagneudiaunet
oupeecnegs
OEDORONSebNabeS
Spegetenpeanns
Garapeeeeectael
Pupgagartaaes
Veesebeateniel
Uhesehadegeeiet abreesesceeuite
a
PERO
Obed bannengneed O0etsecenbeteae
Ceeensanecneass thunecpdangages
thosntea
baeegatecde UURUGCDBUR OIE PUL Oo
PU POUON Ge tenaaees
UROCERoObberet Coanebonoontage
URUConeaer betes Cuvedseeeguene DORRCONedGbbatD OENUEDObaEbonte
AUNGUgegs aaa
Ghedabepeaeeons aaeeunisent
CCC peeataates
toredpreapoges
baeeebepuad
Cagdtgateesiel
Crpetennesanens
PERL
Ceeseeeeageaa
Ghegeeageugars
PU
CORCRCRIbeaet
cenbacceceeaats
Ganeeupegienass
Oirebospebane
CUanbaabogetene
UO
PULL URE |
suoaaegeoeting
eueggengaanens
COpURebanegenes
TORSOCgacbanty
Verennagpenas
UU TE
agenpsegeeare
GUUUbateadeaene
Vopeentenr
CU Oo
sOgegonebnarye
Cangersaagen
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sheet. To print a special
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on very thin paper. With paper of ordinary thickness it will cause wrinkling, and margins will be
askew. This arrangement of pages when put in one
chase is usually described as a half-sheet of 32 pages.
308
Thirty-two pages with inset
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Outer form.
26
TCRCMUasouerad
SUTTER RO rane!
Gendstoctveueng
Inner form.
Thirty-two pages in two forms: two signatures of 16
pages, to be separately folded and inset to make one section.
The sheet printed by Scheme 26 is cut in two
pieces, making two distinct portions of 16 pages.
Thesection containing pages 1-8 and 25-32 1s folded as the outset; the section containing pages 9-24
constitutes the inset.
This arrangement should
not be selected for a library book, for the section
so treated will be too thick.
The imposition of
the pages in one chase for paper of double size is usually known as a half-sheet of 32 pages, imposed for two separate foldings and one section. For 32 pages in one form as two sections of 16 pages, rearrange the lay of pages so that the sheet
Thirty-two pages of four sections
309
can be turned on the short cross in backing up, keeping each section distinct on its sideof the long cross.! Sixty-four pages in four sections of 16 pages
each are shown in Scheme 5, on page 341.
Sixty-
four pages in one section is another impracticable imposition,? even if made with two or four insets. CUO
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CUOSHUUNUESaN
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27
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Thirty-two pages, as four sections of 8 pages each.
1 Imposing the pages for each section on distinct sides of the long cross keeps the same feed edge of paper in printing the second side. Each section of 16 will be on half of the sheet ent the long way. See Scheme 39.
2 An approach to this problem is made by one style of machine folder which, by outward and
inward folding, connects in one
long strip four sections of 16 pages, conjoined but prepared for connective sewing.
360
Ninety-six pages in one chase
HUM? TTT | IRI TTT TS QE) TMS SUIT | Ts SIT HTS)
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28
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Ninety-six pages in one chase: six sections of 16s.
This form is more practicable with plates than with type.
Exact register will be facilitated if the four
mated pages are cast together on one plate.
One hundred and twenty-eight pages 361
dock
en we
To
29 One hundred and twenty-eight pages tn ond chase: eight sections of 16 pages each.
The scheme of 128 pages in one chase is possible for very small pages and thin sections only.
In
two forms, outer and inner, of 64 pages each, the 128-page scheme is more manageable, and especially
so when the outer form contains the illustrations and the inner form has plain type only.
When
there are illustrations that may require special
i.
treatment in making ready, the smaller form of 64
362
Advantages of thin sections
pages in sections of 16 pages only, as shown in Scheme 5, will be more useful for small editions.
Separate sections of 16 pages, when paper is of ordinary thickness, are preferred by all printers and binders.
The schemes of this book could be in-
creased by presenting others for sections of 24 or 32 pages, but they would prove of no service for a neat book.
The methods occasionally adopted by
the publisher of cheap advertising pamphlets, who
tries to reduce the cost of manufacture by printing too many pages in one form on a large sheet, and by folding the sheet so printed in sections of 32 or more pages, cannot be safely imitated in strict book-work.
Forms of many pages are not eco-
nomical for small editions.
Even when the pages
in a form are not too numerous, the unskilled compositor is specially warned against making too thick sections with intent to reduce the cost of folding and sewing. Thick sections will not save time or expense.
What may seem to be saved in one direction
will be more than lost in another, and the book of thick sections will be condemned as unworkmanlike and may be entirely unacceptable.
The smaller the
leaf the more the need of thinner sections. For the large sheets printed on rotary or flat-bed
perfecting presses, that will be folded by the newer styles of folding-machines, these schemes will not serve, for machines differ from one another in plan and construction.
Pages must be imposed by the
schemes of the manufacturer of the machine.
Twelve pages in one chase TWELVE
PAGES
AND
B 5
—
—
7—
— 6
beeeeneauceened
Heesunanongenl
Ceeaseainenits
Buetasancnteany
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nD
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CUbeneaoeeuud Meee
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AUTH SODEEENTES
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Vesa tiannante
TLE
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*
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tensgpanoneeee
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Vuartuaneqeriat
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TO OpUEeCU END BONN AAOUNSEUDE
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Wonsaaunianeans
tientuaecanains
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SUAISEUNLALOES
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SUBNDasHuEEEOEE
Vepeenennaenent
CUerensenauanse
Heunnaaanaaeds
HUEUUHNUOREANNS
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SOUL DDE aET oS
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Wteedavnuntaesy
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+
—
—12
11 —
HCH
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SUV DERUERNUTEN Vveapnnnest
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Ueaboenieet
— 2
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TUT UOLOUNCCNEC EOE Hovgpeenvonated TUNE OUUATE Ue
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30
Scheme 30 is an 8vo with an added 4-page
inset, within which oc-
tavo part this inset can operation, or can be cut off for a separate folding and subsequent insertion.
The sheet is
made perfect
on
the
second side by turning it on the long cross-bar
of the chase.!
one
Pages 5, 8, 7,6 are
Turns on long cross.
often called the offcut,
Twelve
chase.
DUPLICATES
be folded by the same
e
wv
THEIR
363
pages in
because in old methods of imposition they were cut off and separately folded to be inserted as an inset between pages 4 and 9.
By this old method the
running title and its folio figure were always placed
at the tail of pages 4, 9, 10, 3.
This treatment,
unavoidable on rough paper, often produced uneven
head margins and a crooked inset. 1In presswork the first side of
the sheet is laid up to guides against edges AB; the second side, against edges BD. To get correct register by feeding, the sheet should be trimmed accurately square on allsides. Ifthe paper is crooked or if it is hand-
This fault can
made with rough edges, points should be inserted on the first side, as marked in scheme, for its repointing on second side.
The black dots in Scheme 30 mark the usual place of points for hand-press; the +, the place of points for cylinder.
364
Insets and signatures of 12mo
be prevented by the use of truly squared paper,
by putting the heads of the so-called offcut pages against the edge of the sheet, and by giving an increased amount of blank where the tail of the
offeut part meets the tail of the octavo part of the ‘sheet.
The pressman should feed paper to the off-
cut edge and give to its head margin one half of the blank provided in the head-bolts of the octavo part of the sheet. When these precautions have been taken, the head margins of an inset offcut
can be made as true as those of a folded 16mo. Pressmen dislike the 12mo because its turn on
the long cross causes delay and trouble; publishers dislike it because it is expensive in folding and has greater liability to untidiness; yet it is a form that must be used often.
On hand-made papers
with rough edges, the heads of the offcut must be placed after the old method at the tail of other
pages, but points must be used.
On smooth-edged
paper the turning out of the heads for the offcut is a better practice, and the points may be omitted. Twelve pages can be imposed from the centre by transposing in a body pages 4, 9, 1, 12 with
pages 10, 3, 11, 2.
Offcut pages need no change.
At the tail of page 5 in Scheme 30 appears 1*.
The star indicates an inset: 1* for the first and 1** for the second inset of the complete section.
The purpose of the repeated signature figure with
star attached is to identify the offcut and to show its connection to the outset.
In a bindery where
Twenty-four pages in two chases
_—365
this inset will be cut off and may be misplaced, this mark of identification is of service. © 9 —
CUSCUESTOOTIONY FUSLUPPOSEV BOER
SOUUIPCUOTTEAGE Vareeseeay SLOVO Nba noel
J
—16
13—
QOSTGNORROTOND Peng Donogenaste
Coseeeeenenenes COOUUATNRSt aed
GAR Uasbbatoett
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VUTEC Ueragueet t Cretan SUM tOnateeed
SROUBBOUURERGG aN ated ' OU
—12
PEUenahaceanaee OOeeeenagetaal
DOCnetaesa tee HORSBBOU DERG OOS SEUODESSUDpOTLY
15—
DOPUERRDOECEOTE PRUCUATaeesan CUDUNORRDORERNS CU eeaeeenl Ue
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31
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Inner form.
Twenty-four pages in two chases, as one section.
In Scheme 31 the 16-page portion of the form is imposed 8 pages wide and 2 pages high, contrary
to the order of Scheme 19 (4 pages high, 4 pages wide), but this part of the sheet can be folded in
the same way at successive right angles.
The off-
cut, which should be folded separately, must have two successive folds on same parallel. The arrangement of the pages in Scheme 31
will serve quite as well for the imposition of 24 pages in one chase, but this is not recommended.
Thick sections produce outer margins of unequal
width when the book has been trimmed.
Every
366
Narrowing of back margins
double leaf following the outer one is pushed out-
ward a little more than the thickness of its paper. This outpush varies; it is about a lead more on the
second leaf, and it increases uniformly with every added leaf in the section.
In the book planned for
wide front margin, a difference in width of two or
three leads is unnoticeable and may be disregarded ; in the rule-bordered 32mo of small size, planned for margins of one-third or one-quarter ineb, vari-
ation becomes a serious fault which will require much care for its prevention. To prevent this fault, the back margins of inner
leaves must be narrowed with system.
The back
margin of the outer double leaf needs no alteration,
but that of the second double leaf should have about one lead less. The third double leaf, and every added one, should have a narrowing in the same proportion, in all cases depending on the thickness of the paper. The blank taken out of
back margins must be restored in two equal parts
to the front margins of the leaves from which the blank has been abstracted.
This readjustment is
exceedingly troublesome. It is better practice to have this readjustment
done on the stone in forms that are being prepared for electrotyping, the stoneman being notified of the paper that will be used and of the scheme of imposition. In the ordinary scheme of 16 pages in one section, the two pages 1-16 should be prepared for electrotyping upon one plate with the regular
Adjusted margins for plates back margin.
367
Pages 2-15, that back 1-16, also in
one plate, should have the same back margin. Pages 3-14 and 4-13 of the second leaf should
have one lead less in the back margin; pages
5-12 and 6-11 of the third leaf, two leads less; and 7-10 and 8-9 of the fourth leaf, three leads
less.
The electrotyper may need the caution to
bevel all these double-paged plates to uniform size, not bevelling an outer margin too close to type-
work because the margins have been made intentionally unequal.
Plates so made will seem out of
line when adjusted upon blocks, but the pages will be in line when the book has been properly printed, folded, and trimmed.
All the outer margins will
be of uniform width; the abstracted blank in the back margin will not be noticed.
This method of
electrotyping two and sometimes four pages upon
one plate has this additional advantage: it saves
the time of the pressman and improves the register. The appearance of the ordinary 24mo of one section can be made more sightly by reducing the width of back margins of the offeut by this sys-
tem, even when the margins of the 8vo part of the sheet remain undisturbed.
This change can be
made in the offcut with little trouble.
Twenty-four pages can be imposed to produce two sections, one of 16 and one of 8 pages, by
putting pages 1-16 on the two-third part of the sheet (making it an independent section), and by putting pages 17-24 for the other section in the
368
Sections should be uniform
one-third or offcut part of the sheet.
This also
must be folded the long way. Twenty-four pages can also be imposed for three sections of 8 pages by treating each row of pages as
an 8vo to be folded the long way.
Twelve pages, in a form
See Scheme 16.
of similar triplicates of 4
pages each, are often used for the printing of pamphlet covers. Care must be
taken to havetruly squared paper and
exact cutting
and folding, for the paper must be turned on the long
cross, and the sheet must
_
present different edges to
iimumy gum
the feed-guides. The heads
iii unui
of all sections can be laid
inn ummm f
one way, aS here shown.
32
Sections
of
the
same
thickness favor neat binding.
COE Ls Mee
Twelve. pages in one
¢h88e, similar triplicates
TM * P®8°* ea¢>-
When a section of 16 pages is followed by
another of 8 or of 4 pages, the gatherer may over-
look the thin section.
A book that has uneven sec-
tions is rarely ever neatly sewed; its leaves open stiffly and show unsightly gaps at its joints.
Thin
sections are sometimes unavoidable, but they should be prevented when prevention is possible.
Schemes
for sections of unequal thickness in forms of many pages are most useful when the additional small
Twelvemo of oblong leaves
369
sections save presswork or waste of paper.
They
could be largely increased in this book, but to no advantage.
They are not helpful but confusing
to the young compositor, for they lead him to use schemes that call for complicated folding. The six outer pages that come first and appear on the left side of Scheme 33 are on
one side of the long cross; the six pages that come last are on the other side ; but the
sheet is perfected by turning it over the short cross in the usual way.
The sheet is cut
12
Im halves: see rule between
‘im, a,
tanea«nnn
pages 1-2 and 11-12, which
sites
ii
aes
duplicates
of
them.
Pages 5, 6, 7, 8 turn in on
the first fold.
The second
fold is made on the same
parallel between pages 3-2 ' 33
and 10-11.
Last fold is on
Twelve pages of ob-
tlie narrow way of the paper.
long shape, no inset,
In Scheme 34 that follows
central imposition.
= the sheet turns on the long
cross, and two parallel folds have to be made.
It
is intended to have the offeut (pages 9-16) separately folded and inset.
The folding in of the inset,
unavoidable in cheap and hurried binding, is too ,often inaccurate as to margins.
24
|
Names and proportions of leaves
370
*
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CLOLOUSEORONEATCOCLONCCOR TONES CHOLEUAUEDGURROUEdSeueaec ants
Twenty-four pages, oblong shape,! inset of 8 pages.
The pages could be laid for a folding
in of the inset,
but its separate folding will make a neater section. 1In advertised descriptions of books, some publishers specify
the paper-trade name of the paper used before they add the name of the shape or the fold of the leaf, but this practice is not general. Sizes of paper differ and the names of leaf-shapes differ in different countries. It follows that the descriptive
use, but they are not so called everywhere.
The figures give relative proportions in inches, Name of leaf.
Height. Width.
names of sizes and shapes are
Regular or standard. 9 Broad or wide. . .9 Quarto shape .. . 9 Long ordeep .. .9 Extra long or narrow 9 Oblong or music way 9
6 6% 7 5 3% 13
often confusing and may be wnisleading. The table annexed gives names that are in frequent
Variations of a half-inch in the height are seldom explained by any change in name. e
Twenty-four pages by two impositions — 16
—
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SUUGUSUOUNESTED
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— 24
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Twenty-four pages in one chase, with offcut of 8 pages to be inset and make one section.
—
—
TORSOSPORACEOUE
CO OL UORUR PCA anode HEE EO DOSE UR INNS
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—
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19 —
—18
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FUTUOTAVELbEORE
13—
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—24
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Ceeeesunvattane
og
Pee!
Geeueceusnonaee
—
HTP ERCHUOOTENE
SUoredeebiead
Veneeesbaaas
OORUCRAUSAUEENE
Gessieueneisrge
Wea
SPUUEOUCUIDOANS
Vagedeeeaeenede
CHECUUNEUSERE
SUCROADCTEteaE
Feeseneregaans Ceegaecgeiries Stedersageeste
FUOEUeasnde teas
Oreenaeeteeted
CEE
|
Desc eneesacpene
VeaDereuuneeres
GOUbtereioetus
Vupeagueneecita
Gree teneegetes
FLUTE retered
Weddarenayeety
ddUEOC
SeUSuOouctbace
ESCO
EL
Chee ncadtneeret
1.
Vsndeatnetoees
Hipster eiet eed
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STUEG CUT ONO CEE
Re
suedaseeeegcet
Forty-eight pages in one chase, as three distinct sections of 16 pages each, for the square shape of paper.
Other plans for forty-eight pages
375
Twenty-four pages in three separate sections of 8 pages each can be made by triplicating in one chase Scheme 15 or 16 for 8 pages. The sheet for Scheme 39 turns on the long cross.
When perfected it is cut in six pieces, as marked,
and each section is folded as a regular 16mo.
Its
turn on the long cross, for printing on the second side, compels a new feed-edge of paper to be pre-
sented to the grippers—a treatment always objec-
tionable to the pressman.
To impose the pages to
turn on the short cross gives extra trouble to the
binder, and risks imperfect workmanship:
the
upper and lower tiers of 16 pages each must be
treated as widely separated but regular sixteens,
as in Scheme 19; the middle tier of 16 must be cut at the head, to fold by consecutive parallels. For 48 pages in two sections of 24 pages each,
but in one chase, repeat on each half of the short cross the imposition of Scheme 37, or treat them as
the lower two thirds of Scheme 44.
It is not an
imposition to be recommended.
A scheme for 48 pages in one chase, to be folded
together in one section, is quite impracticable even
for a common pamphlet on very thin paper.
It is
never selected for a library book, for it cannot be
folded neatly or be trimmed with true margins.
A section of 32 with inset of 16 is clumsy. It is little better to put the pages in two parts of 24 pages each, one to be inset.
For all side-stitched
pamphlets prefer thin sections.
The paper cover
we)
76
Seventy-two pages in one chase
can be pasted on the back of sections more firmly,
and it will not sprawl outward at the fore edge. 41—
—44 | 58— —86 cesuseroeceen
cosetvariane=Si coaveenvessneed
rreele tree
svtermteteesd
Seremerele- SibLecceacereesied
Wtanescasngened =
eervvesveerettl
rs -sotenertene
Seohvceaceaacsdi casareeecesand
Se racevtacnsaee neoprene’
Srnedlateren SD eapeterteseeed
rrcueticacdiilliatectiocess Seoerseeraseesdibedastesseseesd
EvcicacereoensSM cxot Qua — teeta ‘eanveven ie ‘seoenaeanntoet
4
fretenateneed = avemenenennnene: sosecoctepenediiiicesesecestseed tmeeqeeeel
=, nevmanentte
osasssateces!
Veeseecanaeae’ Hteeetearseeret
Geaetess = Senemrmeenseed
Se eosectloneed
Velessetiated
mopeasenetsee ll pgeesecedecl ernenpennvene: (Grtenpnesseent
alteatisues sensegnensitnes semamHeme =n eseetelanetant De eeangia tll Aneemtenessenne
pe clevwlsbon
5°
”
Miaceomonnees
Sacesannasisellh
Aertvemennes? = aeenieeneens
tleensasesiSi enas~neseetoee]
arsemenennien
Laeaecatasardiilllill
—68
cdevemeomastillscvolerstrsred tbetaceeiased
ceoraceqteetndiiesasiebeleoned conseserennses.
| O5—
Se asita lose
oselecsebesediieesternentaee] Sr
Leeeantartar
=—_seesegneeneent
senernisnecetg = simenNADIEE
aenereetee = ehertuctnennies
6°
| 67—
—66
elblosasesceTE seoses
Uaeeeovvenseneh = teeatennenenen Hornmmtetiy = tose tepnasanet
| BB—
—54
ccessetoccneediiccelenenanied
Led teeratoe i Ceckeccecerseel Meeeneems §=—-saeernmeomaate
Scededechiessdiiiiiensseneastened
Lr ev corettcs
Wetscarencssees = ok etnemgeateas
fenrnanenenste = acstennnaeae?
Wacensmnspeces = asecneerteenee
Camnccemenaneng
Eiiiliiinssoscenesnees
§=—-_senosimnseet b+
; 43— eeeheaeteard
—42
Cersentespegene = aetmtuemenneed ‘snneatenenscene onsleereeliii-weenseanee]
froveorseeaae
emsoneteer esi ctsneeavectces]
causveremiee = basasnewmesantd
vsdyliotnalace HELUlhpscoartenced
dueceoemnneres = Sta tenenenerten coubunenessees] emmemnesnes
aelaleecbecetr SA soneanncsteor]
‘tememengeay =e testaganenenn
Lc lvctnovey see HE sensacterened
weeenniom 8=—- sm omneBE
ouerpemnmets = suatennennntat
lasoamece enc
caotnanesennne Whsotocassened feueeneniend = enetammneenet
Greceanpengeags
§=—«-«-Senudomanensar?
lenorovercetiibemextencecees] cueetnen = Comaneneener
nn
dnapreosertonse
ee esbeeneetien SEE Seneediberd sd ML belsetenestetd Se erpetersl oe er reeesieat SME Cashoassted
ot reetemet Le
reensectatseked
Lteeartepeedl veatenanicaned
eseatansoaassiiiiiliateateiennean! ee
om
—_
—99
37—
—48
Gedeeeneneetice
comeeensemnel
@ammeee =— sre
locerestentadd
40
Seventy-two pages in one chase: six sections of 12 pages.
Scheme 40 is practicable for very small leaves only. In adjusting margins and making register it will be more manageable if divided in two chases as an outer and an inner form of 36 pages each.
It turns
on the short cross and is cut in twelve equal parts, making duplicates of each section.
The form could
be divided in three sections of 24 pages, but not to advantage for a library book of neat binding.
Enghteen pages in one signature EIGHTEEN
PAGES AND
THEIR
377
DUPLICATES
The 18mo in one signature is an imposition to be
avoided, for it compels a transposition of pages on press when the first side of the paper has been printed, and it is troublesome to fold.
It is occa-
sionally selected for single-sheet pamphlets, because
it makes a shapely leaf for the common sizes of paper 19 x 24 and 22 x 28 inches.} The 36mo and 72mo do not require a transposi-
tion of pages, but they delay folding, and are selected by publishers only when paper of suitable
size and quality cannot be had for sections of 16mo. —
—12
Crdgeananoae
Geeanacnonaeoge Currant
t
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Geauens
— Geosagenenntase
PU
Cucpesagenagaaa
PO
Gheranl
Qasansancccgans ORUPGUROOEUOOES
PU
4 i HT
Gan POSES eee Gocrot ue
OU
QbCoebaeeegtons
UOTE
CoerUbeaegsogel PO
Geasacnaneeuees POO
Rorcanonungiaas PP
ait Te VevsPebeetas
GUbbORCUROO ENE
PU
it ATH POPU CULG
Qiaeeoraneal POU
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CUOegUeHHSUOTE
Ceaeennenaeneta eek
coeur
Casendeannegins
UU
TIO
Ceeeseeeetguaes
PU
PPO Coeeaancueagcan
Ubencetoeentond POOLE
Geareneroonnens Ceateabersauens
Ocanobaeueneiea POO
EEO
OUdT TOTES
wa anne
CUALEUEN OND ONDE
POPU
Gastodopeecenes Gecvagecugatogs
Geavenacoagtaea
PE PU — Qebeeesoaatage
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ACUtanegestsone
SORT CORTERDNOEd
Aiegeeeonaaeces
tl ': acaebeanaae Ceurtrpecepanne — $1
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—
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Gannaneesedeae
AUeedannna gaan HOOTOUNNOT ONE OU
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GUCdDRA NORE NES
ine enor psnbneite agen — 6
Gaasnenpeneneee PEDO Gy FT —
Heuiwisi u Me inwun su ae
toad
—1
Cbadsacoscniae OUatecenconaten
besnueranacgeny
—
Cerraterunegene
POOLE
Goeneerengaease
RROCACUODOSTINS
POUR
GUULODOOOeRONOE
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41
Cereeeeaeeggal
PU
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tet
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Gbabeeeeanagere we
Tannin UE OU
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CUbetasaseeaees
UUbiebeeetb eres Oesuagnacguanes
Gerenevacaagoe Geos aesaneteal Ganeeenaenentes
Ceeoebageguoae PU
tua
Cheraanpeeeseay Uboeteatne aueuagaae
Waaeegaupeeaes POE
Eighteen pages in one chase, for one section.
It
requires two insets, a tipped leaf, and transposed pages. 1 The 18mo of paper 19x24 is
papers are wider and shorter,
46% inches, and that of paper
and to many readers the square
22 x 28 is 4% x 7% inches.
16mo of regular fold isasquatty
The
regular 16mo foldings of these
and objectionable shape.
378
Transpositions needed for the 18mo
In Scheme 41 the paper turns on the short cross.
The two outer tiers of mated pages are at the
ends of the sheet, where they back one another So do pages 17 and 18 in the offcut;
properly.
but pages 7-10 and 8-9 would be wrongly backed by this turn upon the short cross.
When the sheet
has been printed on the first side, page 7 must be transposed with page 9, and page 8 with page 10. The transposition of pages in the form produces
the same result as the turn on the long cross. In folding, the sheet is cut in three long strips,
as marked with dotted lines in the scheme.
Pages
5-12 and 6-11 are in an offcut that is inset in the larger folding.
The centre tier is then cut in three
equal parts, and pages 7-10 and 8-9 make another
inset.
This leaves one third of the centre strip with
pages 17-18.
As they have no mated leaf, it is
necessary to cut them through the centre and paste them down on page 16 at the end of the signature. It is not an imposition to be recommended, for the
sheet has to be cut in eight pieces and requires
special care in folding.! 1 The 18mo without transposition is laid down in some manuals: page 7 lines with 8 and page 9with 10; the centre tier of pages is cut through the back margins, making three single leaves that must be pasted down in the centre of the complete section. The inconvenience of transposition is not so great as that produced by the handling of three single
leaves and the insecurity of an unworkmanlike binding. It may be tolerated in the side-stitched pamphlet of one sheet only, but not as a section of a book for the library. Other schemes for the 18mo in one section are equally troublesome, and they should be accepted only as a last resort when no other imposition can be used.
Lnighteenmo folded as 16mo
379
In Scheme 42 the objectionable single leaf is cut out.
This permits a more shapely leaf than can be
had from the ordinary fold of 16mo on paper of regulation size.
The pages in the middle tier must
be transposed for the second side: pages 7-10 and 8-9 are changed in the same way as was directed
on page 378.
The heads of the pages in the offcut
are reversed so that this part can be turned in and folded up with the body of the sheet, but the work
will be neater if the offcut is separately folded.
one leaf cancelled.
Scheme 43 is practically three series of 12 pages imposed together to produce small sections of a
convenient thickness.
The offeut will be most
satisfactorily treated if it is separately folded.
Thirty-six pages in two chases
380
17 —
UoNdecasneneees
SRadeeeataasese
Gagearagesanda
Lhaconogcongans
anedateogncna
sonegunonnntane
Geareagnsagagn
OUdgenvacnangse
Aurveoncesgaung aaeuganesageetg
Ousconenegs
Geveagacesncone
heatsecuonaeas
|
et
Oneranveonnasaa
aabestonveceans
Cosenanesnageas ecevestapnsgae eaneoosarnensed CEL | sae eeeeurnagel
Gosepeecenagags Gouugorsnaeteas ansvcngnnacgota OUsaauieuanggge TUE
Coareseeoonongd
Geatacasaniend
saesagneceansy
SOU Reeneaptant
eueneeanaganns
SUORCAU ORAS ANG
eunessenneneces
— 6
—-
—
OUeRUNUSaen ands
i)
woebaanaenersyy
Unceangnannsens
Goesssentaagage
—~T2
—
tyeenaearegannd
sverecegventaus
Chateseesanasys
TOC ES i}
acaeegannaggags Oobossenaceatnl
a
SUNDER in saNeNt
ancutonsuanase
Ueunagageagacas
OOPeRORaEONEONs
— 32
peneesensenns
Voannencnenagna
*
— 29
Onnensesconsane
Goavecenoatane
Cuauareaessogns
Gbonnecnanenae
— 20
Spenaroasageane
OU aenaneeseas
Coueneenaaaaae
|
DS a
OU Wear eetobeaeee
UO
apesonenaagamns
Gursdacgceseann
Connseunsonaate cunesangenseate
TULL Ohacecapeeunacs
oneRuadabogeged
Genaatecrenegan
COUPE
Outer form.
Cavcenesnegaree
eCeeetaneeeaes
t
PU
Oueditecoongsed
Veuesaseo cages geaeeeneonnt
Gennecessegnean Crasaesespanns
CULegstasnangt
cnncaneagneces
ageapcencseany aeeueesaccarees
oeeesenneponnas
ORGCCOERDOSRNNS OL
Quanecaevengeey |
CURDGDSSERR OAD PEE
Cuceeeeesengnne Centaunepaneas
VAURDCHUOUODDDD
— &%
96 —
SUMUHEUUENEOROR
—~TTr
eevesetenesenyy
yI—
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CULL
15 — UOPEOS OREO
censuesnaeaagal
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CUUOGOOREEEEEY
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POL
— 6.
— T&
Inner form.
43
Thirty-six pages in two chases: three
sections of 12 pages each.
Seventy-two pages in three sections
9b cnepmonaneen.
OF cenegoanenns
Oven oti
coesetenape
ssaaedoe
base beoanetesee
Uapevenresssson
enivangeeat te
eanten
+h supRONSORED,
bennengraen ret
etoent
Gretermsee
ee easdessaneded
‘aetna
Cenemeenand
(wenn
oa
Camgarvonsnemns
381
weasedannn neat
44
Seventy-two pages in one chase: three sections of 24 pages. Each section will be a 16-page with 8-page inset.
Thirty-six pages in two forms can be arranged to fold up as one section, —an outset of 24 pages and
an inset of 12 pages,—but it is a scheme not to be recommended: its folding will be unusually troublesome, even if the 12-page inset has been sepa-
rately folded.
It is here mentioned because it is
sometimes selected for a cheap pamphlet, but the
greater cost of folding by hand should be considered.
Twent pages tn one sectumn y
ez
FWESTYI, FORTY, aSD EIGHTY PAGES TM.
—
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by patumg the ‘page and making the two upper and the twolower tiers
the halves of a regular
a, |
Le
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this centre tier must be transposed when the sheet
.
’
Ur
added mect of 4 pages,
16mo. The four pages of
ed
Credesangds
Twenty pages can be imposed at a 160. with an
3
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is ready for printing on the second side, and the sheet after printing must
ebaeeer
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tab
Ceetoaeee,
tee
CL |
C’
ieenen:
Uspenaseteracn = 0 RDEDBOSR ERE TAG
asenea tes
| OREO RE
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anenee
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eperteas
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saerne .
or
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: 9I-
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cote a
—&
be cut in six pieces, as has been indicated m a previous scheme.
Trans-
posed pages 9, 12, 11, 10,
can then be inset in the centre
of
the 16-page
part, making the complete 45
Twenty pages in one chase, a6 one section, to turn narrow way of paper.
section of 20 pages. Twenty pages can be
imposed without a transposition by putting the
offcut of 4 pages at the extreme end of the form and
turning the sheet on the long cross, but this method of turning the sheet may be as objectionable as the
Twenty pages without transposition transposition of pages or
9 —
plates. (See Scheme 46.) The pages of Scheme 45
vervasenaeagert
can berearranged to make two sections: one of 16 and one of 4 pages, or one
of 12 and one of 8 pages. InScheme 46a
transpo-
—12
Ontapounacerats OTE
penteanuasoa TL
TS
tosnane
crossed
Haaenanaaitea deena aeiersanareiet auepeasaconaen Gasenetaansenet CT
LE
SAAT DO nEOM eee tenets ut
aevaastaeasistt
*
aeveagsauangoad Cs OUCNU TENTH Wen danatsanane oetesertaarit Teor Vagsoeunaaonl eneeraneasen apeesennanaegs
—
sition of the pages of the
11 —
—10
apreneeieanene TE)
0
cvescesanient TEC TR
eaanssacencest saaugtanagenns teagegnneggay
tunannacaggane Ty nanan
wenavensone aneeeaavatney erganonesitns
SULUeNeeoaaeD
aavaassnaagegal
aopateaangueaay
wycnuadpuuggage
VOUaedauesoannl
MENUOCCAUSTOND
OTOL
OT)
odeeeenaeancy
sneotaatt fanenavevenneny ' OE Ouuaneesattend OTL Aacanueaanenans TEL UTERUS
Hudson HUAN N TNA wanepuegesaitny anenaagaisegeay cHeeeuenoentn osedonagea waeegeaggeenas Or Ouvouencasottet
CEUETTONDOUEUN vaensoune Teveentatatiel TO aeceneegaaet evegsnaaa tens tester Ne epeeaneniad TOL
patnaaeasasagna t
darvenegteds Tit) \
uaenstoratate
—
— 16
inset 1s avoided by turn-
5 —
ing the sheet on the long
UbOURU ROAD faveeatoeneata uses
seneouunsatae ICE ny
yet
383
Cusnagoonnagina eeueeeauacgayas
Ousataanaegns eueunnnssseun
AUerUa secant
_—
—
eae
—
—
CUgenaeeaaenaet eenegneanedis
PUceeeeecnaat opesaenauaenen
orggcguaunnatt
enneggagaenta
seayasoncegny segesnensastiny eavnaansestiant
unseeacenanye Terry Oranaaguneggeat
UO vtinaral
UNaecgudaniadt Hgaeeeacenits
aveenagaunaelt
venta
tesbanuecatase engasscgenyen
aoveuacuaannens ry peceuecneaniad
cross.- The sheet, first cut
senasnnsaa
the long way, hastwo par-
Gaseasteuetooe
TO
TG
PEEL OL
opneanangeaael
Gannanagcnanay
Cente ONUeO pens ataSS AvenUeNeA ONE
Oeenanecuerentd enaenersanates OUpeUpeteeus
UL UVAEnSOESUteds aaesoneanesiad
oMenaaenecatese AHEDONATA CHUN onaenesetautert
aie Neaevenasnany UVR LACH
(usgntaasegnal CHAE ROUTED EDN UeUenbo cents
onbadaaeraeean TITTLE ELL TOL
im veya wonasuaseunagty
allel folds
the
VeUeveuaneans
peaueetaaneanss
TOE
TO
Ee
oencunauyy
eueuaenaegul
bostanceseucans
narrow
way before the inset is
suveseagaaaied
inserted.
When pages are in the
customary proportion of width 1 to height 14, the 20-page form will be long and narrow and not prop-
erly adapted to the shapes of paper kept on sale.
To
avoid waste, paper has to be made to order of pre-
scribed size.
VennobaaapNl
Papers on
aeeverneqaetas
TUE
it oneevecenanaial
8 —
veageanvegasen
trovauenvenitas
DUURAVERD RAIS annaneant aeoqeenuregants Hee SNUGvEUSuNENN EO WT aeeavatvagoeny CT
onuseanananeeel
seseaaeseel
OTL
OO SUVUUOEURONUUD
waaenegeanagnnd eta
—€1
yI—
—
SOUUTEUEETCUNED Vdperedenat
46
pocgnoceuaguann
UG
UAE AUOCCOB GON
Peengcenneagens Pecueunganauaal
TOO eo TO CE
OUNUedaganaate vena
Cueeaaeeegsgan
—
Meaaaauacauctas
vena
Ouepeasacauie
wnt er|
— —
vperbseaaniind Qayeeeacaqeuaat
OUSPOUTET ESTER eapsceangeatet
oaenbaranecaaet Sopenaageneend
TEE Tr
CTI Mn) RT OE MUONSUDERagEND ONL ELE
Hagunereguynaat a Teenesayuaaeses Obnenueegenn EE Ueepeuseene bocpsgncunenend
Twenty pages in one as one section,
chase,
without a transposition. Turns on the long cross.
sale are adapted only for the small quarto shapes of 20mo forms.
Scheme 47, practically a sheet of 32 pages with an added inset of 8 pages, may serve for a cheap
384
Forty pages in one section
—=
oeEUnareagngts
——_
—
—
—=
Gapdepesnausate
Duverbateesns
tay
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Oebateaoatauedt snecoorescaceat serrenraianes
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Fenteenensansss Hevesenngazeeay pasecaatongcegn Sebneeacaenenns Ganeneensognans
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Geavecoeneterey aatepecongeecad aeongersenenans Ounegecarcerees Saceteeagpasegs
aacpeteceoognna Ganeaaugaanenae
econveneoaneess Osegsaanuaaniat
seovebentageene eeacenegeuggags
PONegecegggaed erneecagenegues
Gupeanangganans cueuagauaneness
Doeoeonneperagn Teeeeuasearonet
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Stacesenenasane whaesaenvannans
Gacnnbarrancate
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—=
Oonsegagaqeueal
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29—-
Overeuegenesaed
eaeveeeoneenaan
Penedencenegnss
tees
etecaenenennann
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Cyenenousrcenue pneeteeanesoans
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tepecouenananet
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PU
SOReteea eters OETPOECaOT TRONS
—&
—12
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seeageaegeetaty
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soueennceneseng
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Gaectannresaeas Cheantecesoares Deagneeanseceds
Oneenanaearates anddbeeneniaggs
Woetpesenanened Vapdennorecacay
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PO SUUPUOURO NOSE
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sé —
DODCODRACHORIS Osepesaganecies
—830
Gacaseneaeein bamenaeanansagy
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CUED OUaRabOEtS
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ceeagoeeaeeains
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senevecceacarte
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oaadsannsaeetse
taeaunoacageate
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coneastasanetas
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Gocecancouaenss
cecseennecocens bopeaaeagncaag aunegeecaaonens
uretocsureceta
TINT coneeedenneonad
careansetuecent
SON dEREeTN IONE Wepneosocagnaes
ceagsnarececens
ovenveneenaneed CULL
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oonnnocaonegaae Cosbossacgeanen
Gesepeaaapeayal Cuevecunnensste seeseuraeesnenl
Doeverensnegnes avansanenousens barssssed
Wegenponsoneged OUOsnTNNgesEes Genaaneenneeas
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tat
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Gocnegsnacneges Ooernaceubeays
suesoccunagege Oaecncerqegeees
Oeaeetesead taht Guasastanigaate
PEO feavanseengeaee
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tonvenaauasegs
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Opemesenngggnas
Roveasnagseguas
TELL}
Gavepeercaeitns
1 —
SHeceauauenes cepeonegegaatys
Whaenu age enes
— 40
obits
apueeneneaeenny
Weaeeuueenaenn
33 —
Sigvanonscneses
pecvanngonacens
egpnunsesoengee
aneeocencegeans TH tet Meangeeguanaael
‘1
Hiatoseacgaree
PU
ovenapenaeugeas
4
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aa
—14
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veneecerneavene
UU CoUbaneseneteye
— &
anenncenenereet
Syovecvsecasece suesvesecagnngs anecenerernsene
GUOTNebalaacnOD
SOUDvOanratee
ataisereaeagais Gusggenecaatns
i ! GueUaaanaatces OOTeRaneeebest
fanatecdeaceeas
SOCREDSUAOEOIRS
seevoneneaneans
Guanpraegaveah
cangeuetaeences
Geevagsaapotans
aganunseaeen
aceoensunenaas
Senaveceraniens Guaeaeonensare Hieuceeearoeent AUdaspoenoncess Cageeecenun Greavesocuccens bauarccuceggege
bonadacenaeeens
wevoponpseeeaad Doananeanaease # ‘
Oven gesenansies
—_
Geanececuecaced
Adeouoseenaieda
Heeepeesegeares
ineeveonseanees
——
barcanansanesad
PU
Gheeeecseateet
Oanneenanedae
OURCSEORUEREENE Dhavenouuestel
— 8
POUL
faareeceereaad
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CUEDORECCECORE
OOUUELebNoaaeRs
PE
aereegeeebannas “
Cusubeaepanes ‘
Verpeetaneeen
AUUCNONS SRO
poaveeeeespaenl
aagvccgacsuaee
eoeepeaenennes
Dapevavagacuund
7 —
Ceenegaacasgane Geeqeedgaepoggl
cenugnaayenegnd
nenaiteseegeee
Orpeeneenasacns
aprceceesneuena PU)
Agevnsenagngtes Coreeenseaanane
Gouaeneccgesose
Avatateeauanas
eeanansaean ane
bareneacoeante
Genuvaggeggueat bovecessengnads
ceansaneaneneaa
CEU
|
Veatocnegeseags
— 34
39 —
PUL
VORTOROEOGRNO
Caasdeoreuenges
Goneceaseanuens
Geaceusbarenene ancacteoeguage
eeaseaseueegaae
avacvesaueraune
— 2
sucravecnaneoes cauenteaacanen
Qapapaagnpagad
SUORontoegeede
ONeecateneee
seecgosuegepand
PEEP
|
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|
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CULESERROO ORES UU Wet
epeaeeadasoeane Cpeaueapeeneee
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SUtTUR IGE ORE
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47
Forty pages in one chase:
Scnageceecurate
daasel
OUnaeauegaereg Shaeccaareacsee
PERLE|
Oopnteacoreisas
Hbeeedeeentuars
oseauataenarend
Ootbesuenererss
a
one section, inset of 8 pages.
pamphlet on thin paper, but not for a neat book. The imposition could be varied by making up the
form in two sections of 20 pages.
Either method
will make uneven and treablesome folding.
For
pages of regular shape, this imposition, 5 pages high, 8 pages wide, calls for paper that is nearly
square, and that may have to be made to order.
The leaflet
389
Kighty pages in one chase, in five sections of 16 pages each, can be imposed, 8 pages high and 10 pages wide, for a more shapely sheet of paper. The insetting of many sections is to be avoided, for it produces a bunchy back and uneven margins. THE
LEAFLET
Leaflet is the name given to folded but unsewed leaves of 6, 8, or more pages.
A rule border about
every page is common; the space between pages is
narrow but uniform in width.
There is no arbi-
trary rule about imposition: the first page may be
to the left, to the right, or in the centre, but the pages following page 2 are laid down in any way
that establishes their relation one to another. UO
ag ! aentenees unate Geocbanaggesa ttl PRS IPED) OL
TCS Ut OUTIL
OUOEROTEDOGE ith
thitine Wane MUGtReadaueeal $ UR tt) OUDUNOUODTOGEA
ee
ee
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eat baaeeteany SES 4
TIPE UU taseeedaecenced
useeaneniatins
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seresreaneay eee nega 1 gD RC ANOEAD i nin
Creenubeearane CLL thy VERVE OTONOGOE CUDEOGUEROETE Asbteaael Vata vee Ct) ee woagnean auacenains Ly) Gaueceeguagyts OURUUNUE NOD UED
weseecaauennena
First page at right in print. 4
Coan (0) ee Qharssusuaueey RLU
"
OStaneagaay Ct Gecvbeeesanenie
pruee asl veel anaes
CesPUeUaengens !
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DUEDUEDDORGEreG |
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| LL '
COURUUUDOCBUSOT == GUUROUUUGDUROUG =| HUDRONDOGRDTNDE © 8 TENESTORCGRON t sacesanesbeaal ET Gases ett cereceensatent OFUEUERACUOTae UUeeegaubageang DEEMSUEOUOEGNTT | SNPUUNDOCTSIT ‘ Cheevanesnentes 5 HeRUNEdecagaat | GUtOdND TT
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First page at left in print.
48
Six-page leaflets in strip 1 page high.
These pages are to be printed on a long slip of paper, and to be turned on the short cross to make
duplicates. 25
The leaflet of 10 or more pages is
386
Small pamphlets
generally imposed 2 pages high, to turn on the long cross, so that the sheet can be cut through its longer diameter. This treatment makes the press-
work of leaflets on small Presses 1more manageable.
49 Ten-page leaflet 2 pages high. To make sure of exact register, the paper for leaflets should be squared and accurately trimmed. SMALL PAMPHLETS
Printed pages with narrow margins on leaves 1 x 14 inches, and sometimes still smaller, may be re-
quired of the printer.
To make up a form of very
small pages after the methods of ordinary book-
work, to fold, sew or stitch, and trim each one
separately, calls for nice attention to detail.
These
pages are usually printed in small forms on small
presses. When there are many pages to be folded together, or even when the section has an inset, the suggestions for the narrowing of margins made on pages 366-7 of this work should be followed. Care in folding, stitching, and trimming is needed.
Trimming of small pamphlets
387
Small pamphlets of 8 pages can be printed and bound with neatness and economy by electrotyping
the pages to make four or more duplicates, which may be imposed after this scheme with heads one
way, and without any allowance for the waste of
paper in trimming: 1 —
PHVONUPOPaR NESS
— 8
—A4
3 —
— 6
7—
Oussceeaeganaes
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TESTE Ly Vagedaedagegreg CUOLCUaUaeeegns CQOETAT CeCe lets Utoscenagaaaeet EOUGECUGpOGOUNS
Olepeeedugeegnn Oeesseveenenens debedecsegasuaa Ababedesagaread POUL POE Oui
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—
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—
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VART eR eenoeeae
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5 —
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ORUTauetegaaas Caer ssaenaniesy
aang (nies POU Oud
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1 —
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—
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caeteergapiaan
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MUU
7 —
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CURPUNU TCT
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trenencaset Cuettogoauegeee CUOEEDECaUEOes
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1
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VOCUaeneenires
torctoreneopend
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Eight pages in quadruplicate, or “four on.” Sheet turns on short cross. Produces eight copies.
For this purpose the paper must be neatly squared before it is put to press.
When perfected the sheet
should be accurately cut once through the centre,
so that each entire half of the paper can be folded
388
New method of collating
in one piece by edges of paper and not by print. Kach half of the sheet may then receive a separate
sewing or stitching for each single pamphlet.
This
done, the folded work may be put under the smashing-machine to reduce the paper to a manageable flatness for the cutting-machine.
If the head and
tail margins have been accurately adjusted, the knife that cuts them apart will, by the same cut, effec-
tually trim heads and tails. This method saves time, but it is not practicable for thick paper.
Thin
pamphlets can be imposed “three or four on,” so
that each half of the perfected sheet can be folded together and stitched and cut apart, and this will
save the expense of a separate folding, stitching, and trimming for each pamphlet.
A NEW METHOD
OF COLLATING
A gathering of the different sections of a book that has its signature-marks at the foot of the page un-
avoidably conceals all these marks but the one on the first section.
To make sure that the gatherer
has assembled the sections in consecutive order, the
collator must quickly but somewhat imperfectly separate the sections and verify their order by
count.
This separating and counting of the sec-
tions causes some delay, and may tend to mental confusion from its monotony when the work is
done in haste.
A gathering may be passed that has
a section doubled or transposed or omitted entirely.
Folding-machines
389
To prevent this fault a new system of collatingmarks has been devised that enables the collator to check the sections rapidly without separating them.
The new marks are bits of flat-faced brass rule, about one quarter of an inch long and three points wide, that are printed exactly upon the central folding of the back margin of the outer leaf of each sec-
tion.
Each bit of brass rule is placed in a different
position on its own section, so that the combined rules shall present the appearance of a diagonal
black line with breaks at graduated distances.
So
treated, the collator can see at first glance whether all the sections are or are not in numerical order. A
section doubled will show a noticeably thicker black line; a section omitted, a white gap; a section mis-
placed will break the regularity of the diagonal line.
As these narrow black lines are completely hidden by sewing, gluing, and binding, they are no disfigurement to the bound book.
For thick pamphlets
to be bound in haste this new method is of value.
FOLDING-MACHINES
Many of the schemes in this chapter are suitable
for the old forms of folding-machines that still keep in favor.
There are, however, machines for which
they are not fitted.
To meet increasing demands
390
Folding-machines
for greater speed and reduced cost, printing- and folding-machines have been introduced that take
on sheets of unusually large size, with new devices for automatic feeding, pointing, and folding. They
are made by different manufacturers from different plans, but they have little flexibility; as a general rule, they can fold sheets in one way and no other. The scheme required for one is impracticable for
another.
In one variety of machine, the bolts of
folded leaves are at the tails and not at the heads
of pages ; in another, 64 pages are first folded alternately forward and then backward in four parallel
strips, and lastly cross-folded to produce four unseparated sections of 16 pages each ; in another, the
sheet is first cut in parallel strips, and one strip is overlapped by another and again cross-cut by the last operation of the folding device.! These machines are most useful for magazines and work of like nature that must be done quickly and at small cost.
In the hands of careful opera-
tors they can do accurate folding, but for general
service on short editions bookbinders prefer handwork or the older and simpler forms of folders.
For
1The schemes shown in the guide-books of the manufacturers appear strange to the inexpert, but they all conform to
mated pages must be one more in number than the entire number of pages in that section.
the general rules that must gov-
plates has studied the scheme, and knows how the sheet will be
ern all impositions: the first and last pages of each section must be mates; these mates are always one odd and one even page; the sum total of any two
When the imposer of pages or
turned or how the pages will be
lapped, he will need the mannfacturer’s guide-book for a first imposition only.
Folding-machines
391
this reason it is not practicable to present a series of schemes of imposition for machine-folding that would prove generally useful. The forms for some kinds of machine-folders need points or slitters (and sometimes both) as
aids to accurate register.
The proper position in
the form for these devices varies in different machines, and special direction for this purpose should
be had from the binder who will fold the sheets. For a form of many pages on the double sheet, the
points are usually put fifteen inches apart, one tier or row of pages distant from the centre of the full
sheet.
When the sheets are printed on the reverse
side the points will appear in a similar position on
the other half of the sheet.
It is to be supposed
that the sheet will be accurately cut in halves by
the circular knife attached to the printing-press. The cut edge so produced will be the feed-edge of the folding-machine.
The slitter is a bit of brass rule, five eighths of an inch face (to be had of the manufacturer of the folding-machine), which is screwed down 1mmov-
ably on wood furniture in the form.
The attach-
ment of the slitters is a work of nice discretion. They must perceptibly stab through the paper in the act of impression; but if set too high they will
blacken the sheet, cut the tympan, and gash the inking-rollers.
It is customary to set them a trifle
lower than type-high, and to depend upon a pasted overlay attached to the tympan for a perforation
392
Concluding remarks
of the paper to be printed.
This treatment that
prevents one fault may make another.
An overlay
too thick will cause the sheet to stand off too far from the tympan and be the cause of bad register. The cutting of the tympan must be avoided, but
exact register must be had.
Experience is needed
for the proper adjustment of the slitters.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
The schemes of this chapter are for books to be sewed and not side-stitched. The widths of margins (but imperfectly presented by reason of the small size of the diagrams) are those of books planned for cloth cases.
For pamphlets or magazines to
be side-stitched with thread or wire, the back margins should be much wider and the front margins
narrower.
Some printers make the front and back
margins of the side-stitched pamphlet nearly equal in width, allowing but one pica or two picas more for front margin.
This is done in the belief that
the wire stitch will conceal as much paper in the
back as will be wasted in the front by the knife of the bookbinder when he trims the fore edge.
This
concealment and waste of paper is too variable to
be provided for by an arbitrary rule.
The adjuster
of margins should consult the binder as to the probable loss of paper, and regulate his margins accordingly.
—
Concluding remarks
393
Offcuts should be inset in the central fold of the larger part of the sheet from which they have been separated. To plan a separate section of the offcut, to follow the larger part, will compel needless ‘ sewing and make improper stiffness in opening the leaves of the bound book. This suggestion applies to thin paper only. Thick sections should be avoided, especially when the leaves are small and the paper is thick.
In a form of 24 pages on thick
paper it will be better practice to impose for two sections of 12 or three sections of 8 pages. This treatment does not conduce to cheapness, but it does produce better work even for the side-stitehed pamphlet. The paper cover is seldom neatly pasted over thick sections; cover and leaves will yawn. In Hebrew and other Oriental languages, reading
proceeds from right to left in every line; the first page of the book is on the leaf that Western usage gives to our last page. This reversal of our order compels a similar change in the imposition of pages of Hebrew, but the change is quickly understood, and does not require special schemes.
In the 16mo,
page 1 is put where page 16 is placed in the printed scheme; page 2 displaces 15, and every page fol-
lowing pursues the same order. The increased width that should be given to the back margin of a pamphlet with a paper cover should never be determined by a guess as to
probable thickness of the sections. A all the sections properly sewed or
du
f
394
Concluding remarks
only certain guide.
The purposed irregularity of
margins in the pages of the text (least at back, more at front, and most at tail) is usually pre-
served on the outer pages of the cover. When the cover paper is intended to overlap all the edges in “circuit style,” this irregularity must be increased. For pamphlets trimmed on three sides, the print of cover may be ordered with even margins all around. For a book of prescribed dimensions, paper of
too large size is sometimes furnished.
If the excess
of paper is trivial, the adjuster of its margins may add this excess to the width of the blanks previously provided for the front and tail margins, so
that it can be trimmed off by the binder in the gathered sections, but in no case should the back or head margin be enlarged.
For much excess (and
even for small excess) it is better practice to have the surplus cut off before the margins are adjusted. A sheet with overplus of paper on one or both ends is always inconvenient to feeder and folder.
It
leads to the making of faulty margins, to improper folding and reckless trimming. The blanks about pages should be calculated with exactness, so that the printed pages can be folded with proper margins by the edges of the paper as truly as by print.
The more pages in the form,
the more the need of exactness.
<A true sheet of
its own paper is the best guide for determining the proper distance between pages, which should be used as is shown in illustrations on pages 303 and
Concluding remarks 304 of this book.
395
When the paper has rough or
unevenly cut edges, or when a form has to be made
up before the paper is in the house, a measuringrule may be used, care being taken in all cases to have the exact size of the average sheet.
In these schemes the representations of chases, cross-bars, quoins, and furniture have been omitted as not helpful to a clearer understanding of the or-
derly arrangement of pages.
They divert the eye
from the order of pages, which is the chief purpose of the schemes.
Cross-bars, always useful, are not
always possible.
In forms of plates laid on blocks,
and even in some forms of letterpress, they may have to be rejected or be placed in different posi-
tions from those in the diagrams.
As every print-
ing-house has chases of various sizes and shapes, the furniture of each form must be accommodated
to the chase and its types.
For the ordinary form
of type, the customary disposition of its furniture is indicated in the illustrations on pages 63, 303,
304.
To repeat these adjuncts in every scheme is
not of any advantage.
.
The lines of dotted rules in the schemes, that in-
dicate where the printed sheet must be cut by the hand-folder, are attachments of importance.
To the
novice in imposition they show the correlation of pages that must be kept in distinct sections, when these pages are laid down in different parts of the sheet.
This grouping together of the pages
of separate sections facilitates the study of their
396
Concluding remarks
arrangement.
In Scheme 5 (page 341) the relation
of pages to one another in different parts of the
sheet is made plainer by color. The purpose of this chapter is not to present
schemes that will be copied unthinkingly by a young compositor; it 1s to lead him to an under-
standing of elementary principles,so that he can
formulate new schemes for emergencies.
Sugges-
tions and explanations that may be helpful aceompany many of the diagrams.
The study of imposition has been made need-
lessly repelling by the exhibition of too many schemes. cable.
Some are obsolete and others impracti-
It was the intent of the writer to present
only the schemes that are in regular use for the ordinary sewed book of thin sections, but the frequency of positive orders from some economical
publishers of pamphlets for one thick section has led me to add a few schemes that are not recommended.
This is done reluctantly, for thick sec-
tions make mean bindings. It is believed, however, that the increasing use of wire-stitching machines
‘will lead to a general preference for thin sections and a more tidy binding of the cheap pamphlet.
we
MACHINE-COMPOSITION A review of methods . . . General organization . . . The assembling and keyboard mechanisms . . . Learning to operate. .
. Management of the machine . .
. Tempera-
ture of metal . . . Treatment of matrices . . . Treatment
of spaces... The melting-pot . . . Mould and disk ‘The assembling elevator . . . Correct keyboard fingering
A REVIEW OF METHODS
OR many years it has been the dream of inventors to provide a
mechanical
substitute
for
hand-composition, and
many
hundred
been
patents have
granted in America and Europe
on machines for this purpose. An early method proposed was to print the matter by a machine similar to a type-writer, in transferink on paper, and to transfer the print so made toa 307
398
Experimental machines
lithographic stone, or a plate of zinc or other metal
from which printing could be done by lithographic processes.
In other cases the metal plates were
etched in order to leave the transferred characters in relief. Many experimental machines have been con-
structed for impressing type-characters in the required order in papier-mfché, lead, or equivalent material, thus forming matrices for lines or pages, from which stereotype plates were cast.
Many machines have been proposed and constructed for setting ordinary founders’ type.
Cer-
tain of these machines, such as the Thorne and the Burr, were adapted to set the type in continuous lines, which were divided into shorter lengths by a
second operator and justified by hand. Numerous patents have been issued for machines adapted to compose ordinary founders’ type and
automatically justify the lines by inserting founders’ spaces.
The celebrated Paige machine, originally con-
structed in Hartford, which was successfully operated for a time in the office of the Chicago Herald, was of this character. It composed the type from
standing magazines,
automatically inserted the
spaces necessary for justification, and delivered the matter leaded or unleaded, as required, into the galley.
The same machine also received the dead
matter and distributed the type into the channels on the machine.
The machine failed of commercial
400
Cox and Simplex machines
success because of its extreme complexity and consequent high cost. The Cox machine, exhibited about 1899, was adapted to compose and justify the matter automatically.
Corrugated spaces were inserted in the
line during composition; the line was set to an excessive length, and justification was secured by compressing it endwise, the effect being to flatten and reduce the thickness of the spaces. The spaces were removed from the dead matter by a special machine, after which the matter was transferred to a third machine, by which the type was distributed into tubes
adapted for application to the eomposing-machine. The Simplex machine, of which a considerable
number are used in the United States, consists of an upright rotary barrel or magazine having vertical grooves to carry the types, which are delivered by means of keys from the lower ends of the grooves
to a revolving disk, by which they are assembled in a continuous line. This line, advancing through a suitable guide, is divided by hand into shorter lines, which are justified by hand, as usual.
The upper
portion of the grooved barrel revolves intermittingly; the lines of the dead matter are inserted into its grooves and are carried around step by step over the upper
of the grooves in the lower
part of the barrel.
ese lower grooves have at
the upper end small
arranged in various com-
binations corresponding to
the nicks in the various
types, so that the types stowed above in the upper
Empire and McMillan machines
401
revolving cylinder are permitted to enter only those
grooves which have teeth corresponding to their nicks.
In this manner each letter is delivered to
its proper groove.
In the Empire and other machines the types, car-
ried in vertical magazines, are released at the lower end by finger-keys. They slide down through converging grooves to the assembling-point, where they are assembled or composed in a continuous unjustified line. This line is divided into shorter lengths by hand and justified as in hand-composition. The distribution into the magazines to be used on the composing mechanism is effected in a separate machine in which the nicked types are carried suecessively past a series of small slides, or feelers, codperating with the nicks to deliver the types to
their appropriate channels. In the McMillan machine the types, carried in
separate tubes, were automatically composed with tentative spaces into lines of approximately the required measure.
The original spaces were auto-
matically rejected in suecession and thicker spaces inserted until the line was the required length. Distribution was effected by an independent rotary machine which delivered the type into single tubes, one for each letter, these tubes being subsequently transferred when full to the composing-machine. Another class of machines was designed to cast each character singly and assemble them in line, in the order in which they were to appear in print. 26
402
The Lanston mechanism
A machine of this class, by C. S. Westcott, exhibited at the Centennial Exposition of 1876, cast and delivered the type in unjustified lines, justification being subsequently effected by hand.
In this ma
chine the finger-keys representing the letters caused the corresponding matrices to be transferred to the mould which was automatically adjusted to codperate with the matrix and produce each letter of the required size.
The Lanston mechanism consists of two parts: first, an independent keyboard by which a paper ribbon is provided with perforations representing
the various characters and spaces; the justifying perforations being made by touching the keys indicated to the operator by a scale which automatically calculates the size of spaces necessary
to justify the line: second, a casting mechanism, controlled in its action by the perforated ribbon and serving to cast and assemble individual letters in
the required order, and also to cast and insert in each line the spaces to effect justification.
The
casting operation is performed in the reverse order from that in which the matter is to be read.
The Johnson Tachyty pe and the Goodson Grapho-
type are machines on the general plan of the Lanston, being controlled by perforated paper ribbons
and acting to cast the spaces and the type in the required order.
The last three machines are based on the use of the group of matrices representing the various
The Mergenthaler Linotype
403
characters in connection with an adjustable mould similar tothat of the type-founding machines.
The
matrices are automatically moved, so that each letter is presented to the mould, and the mould
adjusted for a body of corresponding size. THE MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE
The Mergenthaler Linotype machine, a modern example of which is shown in Figure 1, appeared in erude form about 1886. This machine differs widely
FIG. 2
from all others in that it is adapted to produce the type-faces for each line properly justified on the edge of a solid slug or linotype (shown in Figure 2), These slugs, automatically produced and assembled by the machine, are used in the same manner
as other type-forms, whether for direct printing or for electrotyping, and are remelted after use. GENERAL ORGANIZATION
The general organization of the machine be described, after which the details
7
404
The matrices
fully explained, and attention plainly directed to the various parts and actions which require special
consideration.
The machine contains, as the vital element, about
sixteen hundred matrices, such as are shown in
Figure 3, each consisting of a small brass plate having in one edge the female character or matrix proper, and in the upper enda series of teeth, used
as hereinafter explained for distributing the matrices after use to their proper places in the magazine of the machine. There are in the machine a number of matrices for each letter and also matrices representing special characters, and spaces or quadrats of different thicknesses for use in table-work, ete.
There is a series of finger keys representing the various characters and spaces, and the machine is so organized that on manipulating the keys it selects the matrices in the order in which their char-
acters are to appear in print, and assembles them
The matrices assembled
405
in a line, as shown in Figure 4, with wedge-shaped
spaces or justifiers between the words. The series of matrices thus assembled in line forms a line matrix, or, in other words, a line of female dies adapted
Heo
ive
Fie. 4.
to mould or form a line of raised type on a slug cast against the matrices. After the matrix line is composed it is automatically transferred to the face of a slotted mould into which molten typemetal is delivered to form a slug or linotype against the matrices. This done, the matrices are returned to the magazine and distributed, to be again composed in new relations for succeeding lines. Figure 5 illustrates the general organization of the machine. A represents an inclined channelled magazine in which the matrices are stored.
Each channel has
at the lower end an escapement B to release the mat-
rices one at a time.
Each of these eseapements is
406
General organization of machine
connected by a rod C and intermediate devices to
one of the finger-keys in the keyboard D. Histributor
These
The spaces or justifiers
407
keys represent the various characters as in a typewriter.
The keys are depressed in the order in
which the characters and spaces are to appear, and the matrices, released successively from the lower end of the magazine, descend between the
guides EH to the surface of an inclined travelling belt F, by which they are earried downward and
delivered successively into a channel in the upper part of the assembling elevator G, in which they
are advanced by a star-shaped wheel, seen at the right.
The wedge-shaped spaces or justifiers J are held
in a magazine H, from which they are delivered at proper intervals by finger-key J in the keyboard, so that they may pass downward and assume their proper positions in the line of matrices.
When the composition of the line is completed, the assembling elevator G is raised and the line is transferred, as indicated by dotted lines, first to the left and then downward to the casting position in
front of the slotted mould seated in and extending through the vertical wheel K, as shown in Figures 5 and 6.
The line of matrices is pressed against and
closes the front of the mould, the characters on the
matrices standing directly opposite the slot in the mould,as shown.
The back of the mould commu-
nicates with and is closed by the mouth of a melting-
pot M, containing a supply of molten metal and heated by a Bunsen burner thereunder. Within the
pot is a vertical pump-plunger which acts at the
408
Formation of linotype slug
proper time to drive the molten metal through the perforated mouth of the pot into the mould and into MOLD
fy
NO!
MOLD Fic. 6,
all the characters in the matrices. The metal, solidifying, forms a slug or linotype bearing on its edge, inrelief,type-characters produced fromthe matrices.
The matrices and the pot are immediately separated, from the mould, and the mould wheel rotates
the slug containedin the mouldis presented infront of an ejector blade, where the slugis ejected
n
the mould through a pair of knives, which trimt sides to the required size, into the receiving as shown in Figure 7.
After the line of matrices and spaces has
ge
The distributing mechanism
409
its purpose, it is raised from the casting position and moved to the right, as shown by the dotted lines and arrows in Figure 5. The teeth in the
EJECTOR PUSHING.
=
LINOTYPE FROM
‘ARM TO CARRY
MOLD TO GALLEY
6) i
SLuGS over In GALLEY
RECEIVING
GALL
LINOTYPES READY FOR USE
‘FIG. 7.
upper ends of the matrices are engaged with a
toothed bar R, known as the second elevator. This elevator swings upward, as shown by dotted lines, carrying the matrices to the level of the upper end of the magazine, and leaving the spaces or justifiers behind to be transferred to their magazine H. The distributing mechanism consists essentially of a fixed bar 7, lying in a horizontal position above the upper end of the magazine, and having along its lower edge, as shown in Figures 5 and 8, horizontal teeth to engage the teeth in the upper end
of the matrices and hold them in suspension.
teeth of the matrix for each letter differ in nt
The
410
Travel of the matrices
or arrangement, or both, from the teeth of matrices bearing other letters, and the teeth on the lower edge of the distributor bar are correspondingly varied in arrangement at different points in the length of the bar. The matrices are moved forward into engagement with the distributor bar and also into en-
gagement with the threads of horizontal screws U, which are extended parallel with the distributor bar and constantly rotated, so that they eause the matrices to travel one after another along the dis-
Fio, 8.
tributor and over the mouths of the channels in the magazines.
Each matrix is held in suspension
until it arrives over its proper channel, where for the first time its teeth bear such relation to those
Assembling and keyboard mechanisms 411 of the bar that it is released and permitted to fall into the magazine, as shown in Figure 8.
The speed of the machine, which is commonly
from four to five thousand ems per hour, but which has reached ten thousand and upward in competitive trials, 1s due to the fact that the matrices pur-
sue a circulatory course, leaving the magazine at
the lower end, passing thence to the line and to the casting mechanism, and finally returning to the top of the magazine. This permits the composition of one line, the casting of another, and the distribu-
tion of a third to proceed simultaneously. ASSEMBLING
AND
KEYBOARD MECHANISMS
The matrices pass through the magazine by gravity.
Their release is effected by mechanisms shown
in Figures 9 and 10, which are vertical sections
through the magazine, the keyboard and intermediate connections. Under each channel of the magazine there is an escapement B, consisting of a small lever rocking at its centre on a horizontal pivot, and carrying at its opposite ends two dogs or pawls
b, b, which are projected up alternately into the magazine by the motion of the lever.
The key-rod
C, suspended from the rear end of the escapement B, tends to hold the lower pawl 6 in an elevated position, as shown in Figure 9, so that it engages
under the upper ear of the foremost matrix to prevent its escape.
412
Figure showing vertical section
When the escapement B is rocked it withdraws the lower pawl 6, as shown in Figure 10, at the same
Figure showing vertical section
413
time raising the upper pawl, so that it engages and momentarily arrests the next matrix. As soon as
Fié. 10.
the first matrix has escaped, the escapement re-
sumes its original position, the upper pawl falling,
414
The escapements
while the lower one rises so as to hold the second matrix, which assumes the position previously occupied by the one released.
Thus it is that the alternate rising and falling of the two escapement pawls permits the matrices
to escape one at a time. It is evident that the escapements could be operated directly by rods connected with the finger-keys, but this direct connection is objectionable because of the labor re-
quired on the part of the operator, and the danger
that the keys may not be fully depressed. Moreover, it is essential that the escapements should act individually with moderate speed to the end that the
matrices may be properly engaged and disengaged by the pawls.
For these reasons, and to secure
easy and uniform action of the parts, the mechanism shown in Figures 9 and 10 is introduced between the finger-keys and escapements.
The vertical rods
C, which actuate the escapements, are guided in the main frame and each urged downward by a
spring c.
Each rod C terminates directly over one
end of a rising and falling yoke-bar c?, turning on
a pivot c? at the opposite end.
Each of the yokes
c? is slotted vertically to admit an eccentric ct turning ona pivot therein.
A constantly rotating rub-
ber-covered roll c5 1s extended across the entire keyboard beneath the cams, which stand normally as
shown in Figure 9, out of contact with the roll. When the parts are in this position, the cam-yoke is
sustained at its free end by the yoke-trigger c®, and a
Depression of finger key
415
cross-bar in the cam engages a vertical pin ¢? on
the frame, whereby the cam is prevented from falling on to the roller, as it has a tendency to do. Each of the yoke-triggers c® is connected with a vertical bar c, which is in turn connected to the rear end of a finger-key lever D. The parts stand normally at rest in the position shown in Figure 9, the
roll cS turning freely under the cam without effect thereon.
When the finger-key is depressed it raises the bar c’, which in turn trips the yoke-trigger c® from zx
ian
Ul
Fis. 11.
under the cam-yoke c®, permitting the latter to fall, thereby lowering the cam c* into peripheral engagement with the rubber roll, at the same time disen-
gaging the cam from the stop-pin ¢”.
The roll,
416
Action of the cam
engaging frictionally with the cam, causes the latter to turn on its centre in the direction indicated by the arrow in Figure 10.
Fig. 12.
Owing to the eccentric shape of the cam, its ro-
tation while resting on the roller causes it to lift the yoke ¢ above its original position, so that it acts upon the escapement rod (, lifting the same
and causing it to reverse the position of the escapement B, to release the matrix, as plainly seen in Figure 10.
FIG. 13.
While this is taking place the yoke-trigger c® re-
sumes its first position, as shown in dotted lines in Figure 10, so that as the rotating cam lowers the yoke, it is again supported in its first position, the
Descent of the matrices
417
cam atthe same timeturning forward bymomentum out of engageinent with the roll and until arrested
in its original position by the pin c’. It will be observed that the parts between each key lever and escapement operate independently of the others, so that a number of cams may be in engagement with the rollers at one time, and a
ys
pee neh ULC number of escapements at different stages of their
action at one time. The matrices falling from the magazine descend
through the front channels and are received on the inclined belt F, on which they are carried over and guided on the upper rounding surface of the as-
sembler entrance-block f!, by which they are guided
downward in front of. the star-wheel /f?, which pushes them forward one after another. The spaces or justifiers J, released from their -
magazine H, as heretofore described, descend into the assembler G in front of the star-wheel in the
same manner as the matrices. The line in course of composition is sustained at
its front end by a yielding finger or resistant g, secured to a horizontal assembler slide g’, the purpose 27
418
The matrices held by spring
of these parts being to hold the line together in compact form. As the matrices approach the line, their upper
ends are carried over a spring g*, projecting through
Fic. 15.
the assembler face-plate from the rear, as shown in
Figure 11, its purpose being to hold the matrices forward and prevent them from falling back in such
a manner that succeeding matrices and spaces or
justifiers will pass improperly ahead of them.
The
descending matrices also pass beneath a long de-
Action of transfer-carriage
419
pending spring g*, which should be so adjusted as
barely to permit the passage of the thickest matrix.
After the composition of the line is completed in the assembling elevator G, as shown in Figure 12,
FIG. 16.
the elevator is raised as shown in Figure 13, so as to present the line between the depending fingers of the transfer-carriage V, which then moves to the
left to the position shown by dotted lines in Figure
13, thereby bringing the line into the first elevator O, which then descends, carrying the line of matrices downward, as shown in Figure 14, to its
420)
The mould in position
position in front of the mould and between the eonfining jaws P, P, mounted in the main frame.
which determine the length of the line.
Figures 15 and 16 show the casting mechanism in vertical section from front to rear. When the
first elevator O lowers the line, as just described,
——
T Alt
SLL
TERN Pm Fic. 11.
the mould and the pot M stand in their rearward positions, as shown in Figure 15. The mould-carrying wheel is sustained by a
horizontal slide, and as soon as the matrix line is lowered to the casting position, a cam at the rear pushes the slide and mould wheel forward until the
front face of the mould is closed tightly against the
rear face of the matrix line, as shown in Figure 16, While this is taking place, the pot, having its
supporting legs mounted on a horizontal shaft, swings forward until its mouth is closed tightly
against the back of the mould, as shown in Figure 16.
While the parts are in this position, the
Alignment of the matrices
421
justifying bar Q is driven up and pushes the spaces. or justifiers upward through the line of matrices. until the line is expanded or elongated to fill completely the gap between jaws P, P.
In order to secure exact alignment of the mat-
rices vertically and horizontally, the bar @ acts
Fig. 18.
repeatedly on the spaces, and the line is slightly unlocked endwise and relocked.
This is done that
the matrices may be temporarily released to facilitate the accurate adjustment demanded.
While
the justified line is locked fast between the jaws,
the elevator, and the mould, the plunger m? in the pot descends and drives the molten metal before it through the spout or mouth of the pot into the mould, which is filled under pressure, so that a solid slug is produced against the matrices.
The pot
then retreats, and its mouth breaks away from the
429
Mstribution
back of the slug in the mould, while, at the same time, the mould retreats to draw the type-characters
on the contained slug out of the matrices.
The
mould wheel now revolves, carrying the rear edge of the slug past a stationary trimming-knife, not shown, and around to the position in front of the ejector, as previously described and shown in Figure
7, whereupon the ejector advances and drives the slug between two side trimming-knives into the galley at the front.
DISTRIBUTION
After the casting action the first elevator O rises and carries the matrix line above the original or
composing level, as shown in Figure 17.
The line
is then drawn horizontally to the right until the
teeth of the matrices engage the toothed elevator bar R, which swings upward with the matrices, thus separating the matrices from the spaces or justifiers J, which remain suspended in the frame,
so that they may be pushed to the right, as indicated by the arrow, into their magazine.
When the line of matrices is raised to the dis-
tributor, it is necessary that the matrices shall be
separated and presented one at a time to the distributor bar, between the threads of the horizontal carrier-screws.
This is accomplished as shown in
Figures 18 and 19.
A horizontal pusher or lineshifter S carries the line of matrices forward from
Ascent of the matrices
423
the elevator bar & into the so-called distributor box, containing at its opposite sides two rails u, having near their forward ends shoulders w’, against which the forward matrix abuts so as to prevent further advance of the line, which is urged constantly forward by the follower or line-shifter 8. A vertically reciprocating lifting finger V has its upper end shouldered to engage beneath the foremost matrix, so as to push the same upward until its upper ears are lifted above the detaining shoulders u, so that they may ride forward on the upDISTRIBUTOR FROM BELOW. sexes canning TICES LANG BSTRBUTOR
FIG. 19.
wardly inclined inner ends of the rails, as shown in Figure 18.
The matrices thus lifted are engaged
by the serews and carried forward, and as they move forward they are gradually raised by the rails until the teeth finally engage themselves on the
distributor bar 7, from which they are suspended as they are carried forward over the mouth of the
magazine, until they fall into their respective channels, as shown in Figure 19.
The distributor box also contains on opposite sides shorter rails, uw, adapted to engage the lower
ends of the matrices, to hold them in position as they are lifted. The lifting finger V is mounted on a horizontal pivot in one end of an elbow lever mounted on pivot v* and actuated by a cam on the end of one of the carrier-screws, as shown in
Figures 5, 8, and 19. TRIMMING-KNIVES
In practice there is oceasionally found a slight irregularity in the thickness of slugs, and thin fins are sometimes cast around the forward edges.” For the purpose of reducing them to a uniform
thickness, they are driven on their way to the galley between two vertical knives, as shownin Figures” 7 and 23.
Theinner knife is stationary, but the
outer knifeis adjustablein order that it may ee
commodate slugs of different thicknesses. This justmentis made by the knife being seated outer edge against a supporting bar or W ing at opposite ends two inclined surf: against supporting screws in the moving it endwise;
it forces the knife knife, and when
m
ad-
Adjustment and treatment of knives
425
forces it to retreat under the influence of a spring
seated in the block.
The wedge is provided with a
series of teeth engaged by a spring-actuated pin or dog, whereby the wedge and the knife are stopped in proper positions to msure the exact space re-
quired between the two knives.
The back knife, secured to the frame for trimming the base of the slug as it is carried past by
the revolving wheel, should be kept moderately sharp and adjusted so as to fit closely against the back of the passing mould.
Particular attention
should be paid to this feature.
The edge of the
knife must bear uniformly across the face of the
mould.
|
The front knives, between which the slug is ejected, should not be madetoosharp.
After being
sharpened, the thin edge can be advantageously removed by the use of a thin oilstone applied against the side face; that is, against the face past which the slug is carried. The stationary or left-hand knife should be so
adjusted as to align exactly with the inner side of
the mould.
Under proper conditions this knife does
not trim the side face of the slug, but acts only to re-
move any slight fins or projections at the front edge. The right-hand knife, adjustable by means of a
wedge and lever, should stand exactly parallel with the stationary knife.
It trims the side of the slug
on which the ribs are formed, and it serves to bring
the slug to the exact thickness required.
426
Learning .to operate
LEARNING
TO
OPERATE
It is of first importance that the operator should
learn to finger the keys with a soft and speedy
touch.
The key should be instantly released and
the finger carried to the next with a gliding movement.
A violent or very forcible depression of the
key is objectionable; it prevents high speed and impairs the action of the mechanism.
As the keys
simply act to release the power-driven devices, nothing is gained by a violent stroke.
The very
speedy operators are, almost without exception,
those who finger the keys swiftly and at a uniform rate of speed.
Anything in the nature of a spas-
modic action, or of a rapid operation of several keys followed by a pause and a repetition of the
first action, is to be avoided.
High speed is not to
be expected in the first few weeks.
The operator
is advised to study his board carefully and to select
and finger the keys slowly and deliberately, in order that he may acquire the proper touch and the best distribution of work between the two hands.
The
best position at the machine is to have the centre line of the body nearly opposite the lower-case m,
as most of the work is done at the left end of the keyboard.
The first and second fingers of both
hands are generally used, and the thumbs and other fingers occasionally.
The keys in the first
two rows should be fingered mainly by the left
Management of the machine
427
hand, which should leave them only when the right hand is reaching for distant capital letters.
The
space-bar can be advantageously operated by the little finger.
Where the same letter is to be used
twice in succession, a slight dwell on the key, readily acquired, will secure the result.
Wherever suc-
ceeding letters are represented on adjacent keys,
much time is saved by a gliding or wiping action
of the finger from one key to another.
If the let-
ters of a word are far apart on the keyboard, they
_are to be struck in quick succession, one with each hand. The beginner should first learn the location of the keys, then study the manner of reaching them with the least movement of the hand, and after this has been accomplished, and not before, should he attempt to increase hisspeed.
In ashort
time he will unconsciously memorize the location of all the keys, and the action of the hands will be as automatic as in writing.!
MANAGEMENT OF THE MACHINE
The first thing of importance in the use of the
machine is the employment of @ good linotype metal.
Unless a proper metal is employed, and
unless, as in stereotyping, the metal is kept in proper condition, it will be impossible to secure good results.
The metal is to be composed of pure
1 For additional remarks on this subject see Correct Keyboard Fingering, on pages 447-459 of this chapter.
428
Temperature of metal
lead, tin, and antimony, in proportions known to the experts.
From repeated use the metal is slowly
oxidized and dross appears.
This dross should be
skimmed off and removed at reasonable intervals, and when the metal becomes hard or brittle a small percentage of tin should be added to increase its
fluidity and the sharpness of the type-faces.
Spe-
cially prepared alloys for doctoring or restoring the metal may be obtained from nearly all dealers in supplies.
When the metal becomes exceedingly
foul or brittle, or is in such condition that it does not melt and flow readily, it may be purified by
melting it in a suitable pot and immersing in the molten metal a stick of green wood.
This should
be submerged in the metal and permitted to remain about twenty minutes, or until the boiling ceases. The remains of the wood should be removed and the metal thoroughly stirred and skimmed.
The
addition of a few ounces of rosin to the molten metal before the introduction of the wood is recommended. TEMPERATURE OF METAL
It is important ‘that the temperature of the metal in the melting-pot shall not materially exceed 550° Fahrenheit.
The temperature can be readily tested
by one of the special iron-clad thermometers made for the purpose, or by thrusting into the pot a sheet
of paper, which at the proper temperature should slowly assume a brown color without burning
Controlling the temperature or smoking.
429
If the temperature is raised above
the proper point, the metal is speedily impaired,
the slugs are caused to adhere tightly in the mould, so that ejection is difficult, the bodies of the slugs are rendered porous, and the matrices are injured.
The temperature is controlled by regulating the mercurial governor at the side of the pot.
As the
column of mercury expands with the increasing heat of the pot, it rises in the glass tube and checks
the flow of gas to the burner.
The height of the
mercury is adjusted by means of a small stem or
spindle in the side of the governor.
When the
thermometer shows that the metal is at the proper temperature, the mercury should be at the foot of the small central gas-tube.
If too high or too low,
adjust the spindle to bring it to the proper level. The pressure of the gas received from city mains
varies widely at different hours of the day and night.
Each machine plant is therefore provided
with a pressure governor orregulator.
These gov-
ernors, for use on the main supply-pipe, contain a diaphragm or float, which may be loaded to a
greater or less extent.
The load should be regu-
lated so that the governor will permit the flow of
gas at moderate pressure only.
TREATMENT OF MATRICES
The perfection of the type-characters produced
depends wholly on the condition of the matrices,
430
Treatment of matrices
which are made with great precision and require
to be intelligently and carefully treated. It is of importance that the side faces of the matrices shall be kept clean and free from foreign matter, in order that they may be locked tightly
together in the line, and to prevent the molten metal from flowing between them. They should be removed from the machine when necessary and carefully rubbed on their side faces
on a soft pine board, a sheet of canvas, or like material, taking care not to rub them so hard as to round the corners.
They should never be washed
in benzine unless unusually foul.
The use of a
very slight amount of finely pulverized graphite is
of advantage, but care should be taken to avoid using it in excessive quantity.
A minute amount
applied in the magazine or on the matrices will be slowly distributed, and in the course of a few days will give burnished surfaces.
The continued use
of the matrices causes a fine film or oxide to be formed in the characters, so that the metal may be
east freely and sharply into them and the type-
characters easily withdrawn. Under no circumstances should the matrices be thrown loosely into boxes or tumbled together. The result will be to crush or break in the very thin side walls of the characters, and it is this breaking down of the walls, so that metal may flow
between the matrices, which causes fins or hair-lines on the slugs.
The spaces or justifiers
431
"TREATMENT OF SPACES OR JUSTIFIERS As previously mentioned, the spaces or justifiers
consist of a short wedge and a longer wedge having
a sliding connection therewith.
The short wedges
are held fast in the line, so that they present always the same point at the casting level. The molten
Showing how type-
metal oh neglected
|
space destroys ad- @ ; jacent matrix.
F
HEI =|
eS
= =
type-metal therefore tends to accumulate on the side of the short wedges or sleeves and to build up projections, as shown in Figure 20, so that when
432
Cleaning machines
a space is locked up in a line of matrices, the projection will crush in the side wall of the adjoining matrix.
This metal should be removed daily.
It cannot be wiped off.
It should be carefully
scaled or peeled off with the edge of a knife-blade or similar instrument, taking care not to scratch the wedge.
After removing all the metal, the side
face of the wedge should be rubbed on the surface
of a board, or like material, coated with graphite or hard soap.
Graphite may be sprinkled on felt
firmly tacked to a board.
The spaces or justi-
fiers must not under any circumstances be rubbed on emery-cloth, filed, or treated in any other man-
ner which will remove the corners or round the faces. They must be left flat and true, as originally made.
CLEANING MACHINES
Cleanliness is the one thing which, more than all — others, will contribute to the speed and endurance
of the machine and the excellence of its product. Every running or wearing part of the machine
should have its surfaces carefully wiped clean at short intervals, and all surfaces excepting those with which.matrices contact should be moderately oiled.
Under no circumstances should oil be ap-
plied within the magazine or to any of the surfaces
against which the matrices travel. The attendant should go carefully over his ma-
chine at short intervals, see that all oil-holes are
Ouling the parts
433
clear, and supply them to a reasonable extent with lubricating oil of good quality.
Special care should be taken to see that the pivots of the rolls which travel on the large cams at the rear of the machine are oiled, so that the rolls will turn freely.
Watch particularly the roll behind
the melting-pot, which, becoming heated, 1s more
liable than others to become fast on its pivot.
The
small brass cams of the keyboard above the rubber rolls should be watched. From time to time the dust
and dirt should be brushed out of the keyboard,
and a very small amount of watch-oil applied with a broom straw, or like means, to the cam-pivots. The journals of the distributor screws should also
be watched and lubricated from time to time, but particular care must be observed at this point to limit the amount of oil so that it will not flow out on to the adjoining parts and reach the matrices or get into the magazine.
THE MELTING-POT
The melting-pot of the machine should be kept
free from dross.
A hard oxide of lead and anti-
mony will sometimes form in the throat of the pot and obstruct the discharge of the metal.
It is very
important that the operator should at reasonable intervals remove the mouthpiece and see that the
throat is clear.
The mouthpiece of the pot should
always close tightly against the back of the mould. 28
434
The melting-pot
The two surfaces should be watched carefully, and
any metal or other foreign matter removed, taking care not to use emery-paper or any other material
or instrument which will scratch the surface of the mould.
|
Occasionally the mouth of the pot will become
slightly warped, so that there will be leakage of metal between the mould and the pot mouth.
In
such case the back of the mould should be inked and
'
the mouthpiece closed against it.
The ink will be
transferred to the high points on the mouthpiece, _ which must be carefully dressed down with a fine file until it is perfectly flat, so that there will be
contact over its whole surface with the mould. Take off but little at a time, and keep the face of the file square with the mouthpiece. The holes in the pot mouth should be exposed fully to the mould cell and show full and round
on the bottom of the slug.
The adjusting screws in
the lower ends of the pot legs are for the purpose
of raising, lowering, and tipping the pot, so that the holes may be brought into proper relation with the mould.
Attention should be paid to the spring at
the back of the pot, through which it is pressed forward against the mould.
The spring should
have such tension as to carry the pot tightly against
the mould, but excessive pressure should be avoided because of the needless wear on the parts and the increased power that would be required to drive the machine.
Treatment of the mould
435
THE MOULD
The mould should be kept scrupulously clean on
both the front and rear faces and in the interior. It should be secured tightly to the carrying disk or
wheel.
If at any time it presents any roughness,
it should be very carefully and skilfully burnished. Neither files nor emery-paper should be used.
If
the corners or surfaces are rounded in the slightest, there will be leakage of metal and imperfect slugs. The mould should be taken apart occasionally,
and the mould cell cleaned and polished, and the trimming-knives set properly.
This will permit
the slugs to be ejected easily. The ejector blade is guided on one side by the
slide which carries the mould wheel, and on the opposite side by a cushioned ejector support to guide
the blades of different thicknesses and keep them ~ straight and in line with the mould.
Care should
be taken to see that the ejector is always accurately
and closely guided, so that it will be certain to enter the mould without striking the corner of the
latter.
Carelessness in this ‘respect will lead to
fatal injury to the mould, the corners of which must remain absolutely sharp and square. THE MOULD DISK
The disk in which the mould is carried should be carefully watched to see that it runs true, and the
436
Correct position of mould disk
slide in which it is carried should have its wearing
surfaces occasionally oiled. The guides in which the slide moves should be watched.
They will some-
times wear and allow the mould wheel and mould to fall below the proper level.
Adjustment screws are
provided for raising the guides when this occurs. The mould disk turns intermittingly, and when in
the casting position and in the position for the ejection of the slug, it moves forward over stop-pins or studs on theframe.
These pins enter removable
bushings in the disk, and they should fit snugly therein, so that there may be no rotary motion of
the disk in either direction. This is very important, in order that the mould may align exactly with the
pot and with the trimming-knives, between which the slug is driven.
The holes in the bushings be-
come worn and elongated in time.
The operator
- should examine them from time to time, and when-
ever they are worn the bushings should be unscrewed and new ones substituted.
Occasionally the mould disk will fail to stop in the proper position.
This is due to the wearing
away of the square hub on the rear end of the mould-
turning shaft.
This square hub bears against the
side face of the adjoining cam.
The cam contains,
at the point of bearing, a hardened steel plate,
which may be adjusted inward and outward, to compensate for the wear of the hub.
If the hub is
seriously worn it should be removed and replaced by another.
The assembling elevator
437
THE ASSEMBLING ELEVATOR
The assembling elevator, in which the matrices are composed, will sometimes wear at the point where the matrices and spaces enter and strike.
In
the modern machines there are removable plates at
this point. When worn, they should be replaced by
others. If the assembler is of the solid type, without removable plates, a new elevator may be necessary. The pawls or dogs at the entrance to the elevator should be examined from time to time to see that they engage the edges of the incoming matrices, so
as to prevent them from falling to the right. Transposition of matrices in the line will some-
times occur. This is usually due to the failure of the
small spring g* (Figure 11) which projects through the assembler throat from the back, immediately above the star-wheel.
This spring should project
forward sufficiently to catch each matrix as it passes and hold it forward in position to énter the line. Above the star-wheel, between the passage for the
spaces or justifiers and the path of the down-coming ~
matrices, there is a long pendent spring.
The lower
end of this spring should be in such position that
there will be just sufficient room beneath it for the — passage of the thickest matrix in the font. When the assembling elevator rises, its matrix-
supporting shoulders should align exactly with the shoulders in the stationary line-delivery channel,
438
The first elevator
through which the matrix line is transferred to
the left, to the first elevator.
If the parts do not
align, attention should be given to the adjusting screws.
THE FIRST ELEVATOR
The first elevator, to which the composed line is
transferred, serves first to lower the line to the mould or casting position, and thereafter to lift it
above the original level, so that the line may be transferred to the right preparatory to the separa-
tion of the spaces or justifiers from matrices and the further elevation of the latter to the distributor by the second elevator.
The jaws of the first elevator
should be carefully watched to see that they are not mutilated and that they are parallel and at such
distance apart as to permit the free movement of the matrices between them.
The pawls at the open
end of these jaws should also be carefully noticed to see thats they are in operative position and that
they retain the incoming matrices with certainty. It is of vital importance that the first elevator shall
carry the matrix line downward until the ears at the lower ends of the matrices are in position to permit the mould to slide forward freely over them.
The descent of the elevator is controlled by a screw in its top which bears upon the top of the
vise frame.
If the elevator is stopped at a high
level, and through any cause the vise automatic fails
to work, the sharp corner of the mould, advancing
The second elevator
439
over the ears, will shave away their upper edges, with the result of destroying the matrices and the
alignment of the type-characters on the slugs. When the assembling elevator rises to its upper
position, it is very important that it should align horizontally with the channel into which the matrices are transferred to engage the second elevator.
An adjusting screw at the lower end of the elevator slide serves to give it the required position.
This
elevator is raised and lowered by the large cam on the outside of the frame, which acts on a roller on the end of the lever.
It will be observed there is
also an adjustment between the two parts of this lever, outside of the frame and near the cam, to change the vertical movement of the elevator.
THE SECOND ELEVATOR
The second elevator, to which the line of matrices is transferred from the first elevator, carries a toothed or ribbed bar to engage and lift the matrices.
This bar should be watched to see that its
teeth are not rough or mutilated.
Either of these
defects will cause the bar to wear or to cut away the teeth of the matrices and cause bad distribution. When the second elevator lifts the matrices to
the top of the machine, it comes to a rest against a solid support or banking-piece.
These parts should
be kept scrupulously clean and should be watched to see that the toothed bar carrying the matrices
440
Replacing the worn rails
comes into exact alignment with the corresponding bar in the lift-box of the distributor, so that the matrices may be pushed forward smoothly from
one bar to the other and into the box. The slide which pushes the matrix line forward from the second elevator should move freely, and
its actuating spring should be adjusted so that it will force the line horizontally with moderate pressure.
The forward matrix of the line will bear
against the vertical shoulders of the rails in the box, as detailed on page 423, and the matrix will
be held in position directly over the upper end of
the vertical lifting finger.
This finger will push
the matrix upward, clear of the shoulders and in
engagement with the feed-screws.
The matrix will
thus be carried along with its shoulders riding on the inclined ends of the rails, until it is lifted into engagement with the teeth of the distributor bar, along which it will be carried.
The rising matrices
will gradually wear away the vertical shoulders of
the stop-rails in the box, so that the matrices will be lifted to an improper position and against the threads of the screws, by which they will be bent. The rails should therefore be carefully watched,
and when appreciably worn they should be replaced by new rails.
In the later machines the shoulders of the rails are made in separate pieces, so that they may be
removed and replaced by others without renewing the entire rails.
Adjustment of matria-lifting finger
441
The distributor box may be removed by releasing
the one large screw.
When the box is restored
to its position, care should be observed to force it
upward as far as it will go and until it is seated firmly in place. Failure to do this will result in damage to matrices. The matrix-lifting finger also requires attention.
It should be so adjusted that it will in every case lift the matrix clear of the shoulders on the side
rar WHEEL
Fie, 21.
rails, but should not be permitted to lift a ma-
trix any farther than is necessary to secure its release.
442
Care of magazine channels
The shoulder of the lifting finger on which the matrix bears should be kept clean.
If dirt is per-
mitted to accumulate in the angle, the finger will slip off from the matrices and fail to lift them properly. In the distributor box the bar overlying the line
of matrices is provided at the inner or front end with a thin vertical blade to enter the vertical slot in the centre of the front matrix.
The object of this
blade is to prevent the lifting of more than one ma-
trix at atime.
It will sometimes wear away on the
end, or become shortened, so as to permit the lifting of two thin matrices.
If two matrices are lifted
at one time, it is due either to the wearing away
of this blade, or to the wearing away of the stopshoulders on the rails.
They should be carefully
examined to see that the space between them is such that only one matrix will pass upward.
Ifthe blade
is too short, a new one should be inserted or new rails substituted.
The magazine channels should be brushed out from time to time and kept scrupulously clean.
On
this depends the free delivery that is needed for securing speedy composition. The escapements at the lower end of the magazine should work freely at all times.
Each pawl
should sink until its upper end is exactly flush with
the bottom of the groove or channel in which the matrix ears slide.
At reasonable intervals the
escapements should be thoroughly brushed out.
Cleaning channels offace-plate
443
An exceedingly slight amount of fine graphite may be applied to the escapement levers to ease their
action.
Great care must be exercised not to apply
an excessive amount.
Time must be relied upon
to secure its proper distribution. The channels of the face-plate in front of the magazine should be kept clean, and great care
should be taken to see that the upper ends of the
MOLD WHEEL .
Bi]
RST ELEVATOR
GY
JUSTIFIER
Fia,. 22,
partitions do not overlap the ends of the matrices or the matrix channels, so as to obstruct the outcoming matrices.
In the older machines the lower end of the magazine is adjustable vertically and also laterally.
If
there is any failure to deliver matrices, the escapements should be carefully examined to see that the pawls rise and fall to the proper extent.
If not,
444
The distributor feed-screws
the action can sometimes be corrected by slightly raising or lowering the end of the magazine. The distributor bar should be kept very clean
and in a burnished or polished condition.
<A piece
of soft pine wood with a little black-lead is an excellent thing for this, as the soft wood cuts its way down to the bottom of the teeth of the bar and polishes it thoroughly.
If from any cause the ends
of its teeth become rough, it will speedily destroy _
the teeth of the matrices. The channel entrance or magazine entrance below
the distributor bar contains a series of vertical partitions, by which the matrices are guided downward into the upper flaring ends of the grooves or channels in the magazine.
These partitions are
sometimes bent to the right or left, so that the fall-
ing matrices will strike upon them or be deflected into the wrong channels.
They should therefore
be carefully watched in connection with the falling matrices to see that the latter enter freely between
the partitions. The distributor feed-screws should occupy proper
relations to each other and to the bar.
For this
purpose one of the gear-wheels at the end has one of its teeth partly cut away and the companion
gear is provided with a stud to enter the cavity. The back feed-screw can be raised by releasing the spring latch on right-hand end.
When replacing,
after the screw has been raised, care should be observed to reset the screws in the proper relation.
Cautionary remarks
445
CAUTION
There are a few important errors against which
operators are particularly cautioned. Access is had to the casting mechanism by un-
locking the vise frame and swinging it forward away from the mould.
This should never be done
unless the mould wheel is first moved rearward
away from its stop-pins. The machine should not be permitted to remain
at rest with the pot against the mould.
The effect
will be to overheat the mould, soften it, and cause
it to warp out of shape.
- Spaces or justifiers should not be used at the extreme ends of a matrix line, nor should two be placed together in the line.
[—] _ HORIZONTAL SECTION ot i i
somite 4\\
EJECTOR
= KNIVES
5 meLting’ Pot |
Ay [oH
FI@. 23.
Under no circumstances should the magazine be pounded or subjected to harsh or violent treatment.
446
Cautionary remarks
The matrix line
should never be set to such
length that it will fail to descend between the vise jaws easily.
Under no circumstances should the
first elevator be forced downward to carry a matrix line between the jaws.
This action will cause dis-
placement of the matrices, the bending of the jaws, and other serious evils which cannot be corrected except by a skilled mechanic.
The metal-pot should not be filled higher than half an inch from the top.
The metal should never
be permitted to run to a low level in the pot.
Good
results can be obtained only by filling the pot at short intervals, so as to maintain a substantially uniform level of the metal therein. If the machine fails to run easily, it is because
the parts are not clean and because they need oiling. The tightening up of the main clutch, so as to
drive the machine forcibly, is attended with many dangers.
No part of the machine should be filed or otherwise altered in shape.
If the parts fail to move easily, or fail to perform
their functions, it is either because they are not clean, or because they are in need of adjustment.
ba
Correct keyboard fingering
CORRECT
KEYBOARD
447
FINGERING
That the average speed of operators of the Lino-
type is steadily increasing is undeniable.
There
are to-day divers ten-thousand-an-hour men.
An
operator nowadays is not designated as “swift” unless he can strike a seven- or eight-thousand-anhour gait.
What is it that is responsible for this
noticeable increase in the operator’s output in recent years?
The machine itself has not undergone
any material change.
Indeed, ten thousand ems an
hour has been averaged on the old-style square-
base machine.
It is not accountable on the as-
sumption that the operators are becoming more proficient with practice.
Many of the oldest opera-
tors are setting no more than they did in the first year or two on the machine.
Some swift composi-
tors failed to become fast operators, while many type-setters of mediocre ability at the case have developed into swifts on the keyboard.
It has been
witnessed time and again that a slow operator will
suddenly blossom into a full-fledged swift, and the reason therefor is not apparent. What is the key to this mystery ?
It is explainable only on the theory that these swifts have discovered some truths about operating the keyboard not universally known. They have devoted themselves to a painstaking study of the keyboard and its proper manipulation, and the
448
Correct keyboard fingering
results are apparent in the records being hung up. What these few have done the many can do. hes with themselves to make the effort.
It
It is pos-
sible to set fifteen thousand ems an hour on the Linotype, and no operator should be content until he reaches the limit of his machine’s capacity. The first thought to occur to a student of this
question is that to set type at such high rates of speed requires incessant reading of the copy.
The
keyboard must of necessity be operated without looking at it.
Certainly one cannot be shifting
the eyes to the keyboard and back to the copy without danger of losing one’s place.
Therefore it is
apparent that, in order to avoid the necessity of looking at the keyboard, the location of the keys
must be so fixed in the operator’s mind that the fingers seek them mechanically, and the eyes be devoted to the continuous reading of the copy.
If
this is so, it no longer is necessary to read ahead of what one is setting, as was customary with the
hand-compositor.
To stop operating while memo-
rizing a sentence is fatal to the acquirement of
speed, which demands that the fingers be kept moving incessantly.
The fingers travel over the
keys as the eyes travel over the lines of the copy,
the sense of what is being composed being kept by glancing ahead while sending up the line of matrices. Of course speed cannot be attained on illegible manuscript or unprepared copy of any description, but if no time is lost in fingering the
Correct keyboard fingering
449
keys when the sailing is fair, the operator has time to decipher the cryptography of the scribbler while the elevator is “hung up.”
This is an important
advantage fast operators have in keeping ahead of
the machine.
They. actually lose no time when it
is necessary to hand-space a line, make a correction, or study their copy, and their proofs are therefore cleaner by reason of their swiftness.
All good printers, perhaps, are not swifts, but it is safe to say that all swifts are good printers. It is only errorless type which is printable, and
as a single error in a line renders the whole line
worthless it is important that few errors be made. Speed in operating may be acquired by any indefatigable student.
The proof-reader, however, must
be reckoned with.
Accuracy should be esteemed
above mere speed.
Speed will come with practice ;
accuracy only with painstaking endeavor. There are some general rules which may be laid
down as essential to the acquirement of speed in operating the keyboard of the Linotype.
If the
keys are to be operated without looking at the board, the hands must assume some fixed relation
to the keys in order that the fingers may unhesitatingly and unerringly reach for the letters without the guidance of the eyes.
Assuming that the loca-
tion of the keys has been so memorized that they are indelibly impressed on the operator’s mind, the hands must be placed so as to economize to the
utmost the distance necessary to travel in order to 29
450
Correct keyboard fingering
reach any key.
Seated at the keyboard so that the
lower-case side is
directly before
the operator,
spread out both hands so as to cover entirely the lower-case keys. This should be the general position
of the hands.
This position will place the thumbs
in control of the lower banks of keys, and they perform no slight portion of the work of operating. A system of fingering which will suit the long, lithe-fingered chap will be impossible to the stubbyfingered operator, so each must modify the general rules to suit his individual case.
The object of both
will be to avoid wide jumps of the hands in fingering the keys.
Move the hands as little as you may.
Stretch the hands out and spread the fingers over the keyboard.
Use every finger you can control—
all except the little finger, at any rate.
A light,
quick, but firm touch is the most effective.
Now as
to practice.
y The best possible practice for the one ambitious
to be a swift operator is repetition of certain words or phrases.
By this method the entire attention
can be concentrated on the finger motion, and when
the proper combination has been determined, practise it over and over until it becomes mechanical. Wherever such combinations as sh, ch, in, ete., oceur, make them with a single stroke of thumb or finger, sliding off one key on to the one below. In this manner practise on all ordinary prefixes and terminals and the common words. There should be no set rule as to which finger should strike a
Correct keyboard fingering certain key under all circumstances.
451 The finger
nearest to any key should be the one to use, and this will vary according to the needs of the follow-
ing or the preceding words.
In order to establish
a system of fingering, however, and illustrate what is meant by economy of movement, it may be well
to demonstrate the fingering of certain words.
The
accompanying diagrams are therefore submitted. In these diagrams the letters on the fingers show
the preferred method of fingering the word.
Two
or more letters connected by a ligature indicate
that these should be struck with a wiping motion with the one finger given.
These combinations
should be practised over and over, and enlarged upon as proficiency is gained.
Where double let-
ters occur, the key is to be held down instead of making two
strokes.
In
doing this, keep the
rhythmic beat of the fingers without actually rais-
ing them from the key. Bear in mind that repetition of words or sen-
tences 1s of the utmost importance.
To practise
the word a half-dozen times is not sufficient.
Prac-
tise it at first with the eyes on the keys, and as the location of the letters forming the word becomes
fixed in the mind, look away and continue the practice.
Keep wrist and fingers flexible, and do
the moving with the fingers instead of the whole hand.
Do not withdraw the hand or fingers after
striking a key, and do not double up fingers not at the moment in use.
452
Correct keyboard fingering
calling.
the—them— then.
Correct keyboard fingering
charming.
453
454
Correct keyboard fingering
unless.
government.
Correct keyboard fingering
formation.
punishment.
455
Correct keyboard fingering
ack
456
and—man—demand—many.
Correct keyboard fingering
would—could—should.
457
458
Correct keyboard fingering
The following list of words may be practised on with advantage :
making taking shaking doing striking choking
each toward fresh mind food blind
retain sustain maintain relation station rarity
hardly
made
purity
truly surely kindly friendly
are bill chill mail
merrily cheerily merely purely
much
meek
probably
such rush crush must strike
willing week there thus always
thoroughly usually fully willing number
A sentence which embraces every letter in the alphabet will afford good keyboard practice.
Such
a sentence as the following may be used: The sleek brown fox jumped quickly over the lazy dog.
Use the en quad and a space-band after the period in sentences.
The more space-bands in the line
the less liability of hand-spacing. Carefully avoid oversetting the line; it is better to send it in short and reset, using thin spaces with the space-bands
4
Correct keyboard fingering this time. casting.
459
The pump-stop will prevent short lines |
. In quadding out lines use the en quad, em quad,
and space-band alternately.
The more space-bands
in any line the less full it need be set.
Operate the
space-band with second or third finger of left hand. Do not strike two or more keys simultaneously. They almost certainly will clog or transpose before reaching the assembler. Speed the keyboard rollers
to two hundred and seventy-five revolutions per minute and the machine to any number of lines per minute up to nime, provided you can “hang her up”
at the speed, follow the system of fingering
here expounded, and the proof-reader’s pencil is the
only thing that can stand in the way of any operator becoming a swift.
Se
INDEX
OE ee - oe ss .—Kt.
we Se -OOTeER 5
ation to intent
Gontury Dictionary, 252°: in’tor:
230
ition
elgn lang 233 uage (see also s, note) ;
as dis:
ed’ from half itle,
Greek, 236
130
Nein aa we s
of, 31; braces used composition ‘of books of, 97.
fleult form of com yposition, 171;
Sition of 112-186
‘in, 172; on the com,
America, case in two in, 14" (note)5
a
favored patents
tn, Sot. "See alvo'Cnived Black-letter, fanted use of, in ti 112 (note),'126 note;not tae for gutin notes, 205 for legend lines, ine
Bincklead, tne
Antique, for rani
Appendix, verboue extracte in, 188; ing Of, 140; setting of, 147 Arabic, oné or more fonts of, 232
(note)
Authors,
proofs
withheld
by, 3
(note); ty} standing by elays of,4; ulcer attention to ne-
cents fi
‘on by
modern,
agreements on style with, hing of by, 8
farestorr, lous taste St publishersands 96;
‘also
Bodoni, Olambattista, safe Teaderpili of, 10
used in, 283 shemian, accents
real sponsors of books, 108; type463
gins
{rote moet appre
464
Index
sewing in, 383, 334; defects of side-stitching in, 334 (note) ; neat, 876; unworkmanlike, 378 (note) ; mean, 396
Book-chases. See Chases Book-houses, sorts needed in, 2; supply of printing-materia] needed in fully equipped, 3, 4; petty fonts of display types seldom needed in, 29; large types and borders often required in, 32; petty cabinets not desirable for, 35; weight of leads required in, 60; making up in, 67 ; time-hands and piece-hands in, 75; stonework in American, 80; characters seldom found in ordinary, 232 ks, types needed for composi-
tion of, 1, 2; printed from type, 73; from electrotype plates, 73;
methods followed in production
of, 76 et seq.; title-pages of, 111 et seq.; dedication, 127, 128; table of contents, 128, 129; table of illustrations, 129, 130; parts and halftitles, 130, 131 ; chapter headings, 131, 132; chapter synopsis, 132, 138; preface and introduction, 133, 134; without running title, 144, 146; Kelmscott, 159; one method of decorating, 161; decorations for, should be made by
qualified artist, 163 (note) ; typography of, should agree with subject-matter, 167, 168; odd and plain types in, 168; with decoration, 168; ephemeral, 169 (note) ; copying best features of, 170; characters needed in mathematical, 172; recent, of goad workmanship, 261; types for running
titles of, 262; profusely annotated old, 280; sumptuous, 281; workmanship of well-printed, 288; locking up and correcting madeup pages of, 289; adjusting mar-
gins of, 297-306; gathering, fold-
ing, sewing, and trimming sections of, 332-337, 340 (see also note 2), 342, 362, 365, 366, 368, 375, 376, 388, 389; side-stitching never
used for library, 334 (note);
vertised (note);
descriptions schemes
ad-
of,
370
for sewed,
392,
396. See also Pamphlets Book-work, fractions, signs, and reference-marks in, 18; solid and leaded, 21; faces of brass rule
most used in, 47 ; brass braces sel-
dom used in, 55; leads for ordi-
nary, 57;. lengths of furniture rarely required in, 68; should receive two re » 85; spacing and leading of, 88 ‘et seq.; tables in good, 198; miscellaneous, 232; Flemish black-letter occasionally used for display lines in, 253 ; how to insure accurate register on, 292; adjusting margins in, 207306; tools needed by stoneman for exact, 307; folding of sections in, 382-887. See also Composition Borders, large, often needed in
pook-houses, 82; brass rules of plain face now more needed than, 51; hair-line rule, 52-55 ; twisted and fantastic, 108; broad, 160; of type, 160; thin strips of, 165; overworked t phic, 165, 167 ;
now provided by type-founders,
167; in the so-called Elzevir and in the Byzantine or Turkish style, 167 ; difficulty of locking up forms containing brass-rule, 315, 316 Bottling, how to remedy, 313 Box-fasteners, 31 Braces, freakish placing of, in type cases, 11; sectional supplanted by solid, 12; weight of, in font, 16; cases with unequal compartments needed for, 38; brass, 55; used in algebra, 174, 180; French method of using, 205, 206; in genealogies and pedigrees, 225 Brackets, in algebra, 173, 178, 179,
180, 185, 186 Bruce, David, Jr., 255 Bruce, George, 171 Bruce Type Foundry, scheme formulated by, 16 Bunsen burner, use of, 407 Burr machine, 398 Byzantine style, 167
Cabinets, improved form of, 9, 10; for cuts, 33; for job cases, 35
Capelli, Adriano, 234 (note)
Capitals, increased supply of, sometimes needed, 2; arrangement of, in type cases, 11; weight of, in font, 16; in steady request, 18; proposed arrangement of lower case with, 19; case for lower-case, small capitals, and, 22; job cases for lower-case and, 28, 35; triple case for, 29; uniformity in use of, 717; spacing of, 90, 91; roman, of regular form, preferred for titlepages, 111, 112; for chapter headings, 131, 132; accented, 233 (see
Index also note); roman or italic, for running titles, 262. See also Letters and Small capitals Capitals, small, See Small capitals _ Case-racks, too much room occupied by, 36; for display type, 36, 37; should be numbered, 37
Case-rests. See Cabinets and Stands
Cases, stands for supporting, 4 et seq.; for ordinary composition, 10 ’ et seg.; in one piece, 14 (note); surface of, 14; accepted form of lower, 15; readjustment of boxes of, 17, 18; old-fashioned, 22; for lower-case, capital, and smallcapital letters, 22; made for composition of Century Dictionary, 23-27; job, 28, 35; triple, 29; tray, 31, 32, 33, 38; great defect in, of old manufacture, 31; now made as strong as they are light, 81; combination of quarter, 33, 38; for quadrats and spaces, 34;
for leads, 34; common form of quadrat,
35;
for
play
type
should be numbered, 37; for com-
position of Greek, Hebrew, and music, 38; for labor-saving rule, 49-52; disadvantage of shaking,
after distribution, 101; for composition of algebra, 175, 176; for
music composition, 219, 220-223 ; for composition of Greek, 237; for
Hebrew, 245, 246; for German, 250, 251 (see also note) Catch-lines, in title-pages, 114 (see also note) Caxton, William, old Flemish black used by, 253 Centennial Exposition, 402 Century Dictionary, special stand made for composition of, 23-27; accents used in, 232 Chapter headings, setting of, 131 (see also note), 132; on odd pages, 184, 185 (see also note); sinkage of, 255, 268 Characters, insufficient provision of, 2; arrangement of, in type cases, 11 e¢ seq.; new, 77; unusual, 95;
algebraic, 175, 187; Greek, Hebrew, and German, 232. See also Capitals, Letters, and Small capCharts, genealogical, 228, 229 Chase-bars, 55. See also Cross-bars Chase-racks, 67, 290, 330 8, 2; forms of type in, 63; fitting of, with furniture, 78, 310; for electrotyping, 81, 318, 330, 343,
30
465
844; pages imposed in, 83; racks for, 289, 330; cast-iron and wrought-iron, 290, 291, 343, 344, 345 (note); twin, 292; shiftingbar or bvok-, 292-294; screw, 294; long and narrow, or heading-, 204; selection of, 306, 307,
316, 317, 343; exact register impossible with unsquared, 307 (see also note) ; how to prevent bowing
of, 308, 309; how they may be
strained or cracked, 314; gripperedge of, 327; care of, 345 (note). See also Cross-bars and Imposition Circulars, publishers’, 32 Citations. See Extracts and Quotations Code, on style, 99 Composing-machines. See the various qualifying names Composing-room, type cases most noticeable objects in, 4; importance of keeping materials accessi-
ble and in good order in, 5; how to secure orderly arrangement of, 35, 36; planning a, 57; use of imposing-stone in, 289 Composing-rule, description and use of, 46, 100, 259, 323
Composing-stick, description of, 44
(see also note); different styles of, 44, 45 (see also note); correct manner of holding, 98; proper method of emptying, 101, 102; adjustment of, to measure, 102, 103; for algebraic formulas, 182 (see also note), 187; should not be laid on face of form, 324 Composition, types needed for different kinds of, 1, 2; when it can
be economically done, 8 (see also
note), 4; cases for ordinary, 10 ¢e
seq.; open, 21; of Greek, Hebrew,
and music, 38; waved, triple, and ornamental rules not used in plain, 47; needless delay and trouble in, 54; made spongy by treble-leading, 62, 92, 262; by time-hands and piece-hands, 75; routine of plain, 75 et seg.; common fault of novice at, 86; solid and thin-leaded, 88; projecting kerns in electrotype, 90; adjustment of blanks or white lines in, 91, 92; influence of type-setting machines on, 96, 97; aids to, 100;
of title-pages, 111 et seq.; dedication, 127, 128; table of contents, 128, 129; table of illustrations, 129, 180; parts and half-titles, 130,
466
Index
131; chapter headings, 131, 132;
for algebra, 187; rcomposing a table from manuscipt, 194 et seq.; music, 217; for genealogical charts, 229; in foreign languages, 231; in German, 254. See also Manuscript Counting-room, needs of, 79 Cox machine, Cross-bars, 63, 291-294, 303, 307, 308, 814, 315, 339, 340 (note 1), 344, 845 (note), 347, 353, 363, 364, 369, 373, 375, 376, 378, 382, 385, 395. See also Chase-bars and Chases Cut-in notes. See Notes Cuts, half-tone, 82, 33; cabinet case
chapter synopsis, 132, 138; preface and introduction, 188, 134; appendix, 147; index, 147, 148; poetry, 148-151; algebra, 171-188; tables and table-work, 188-207; music, 207-225; genealogies an pedigrees, 225-230; older forms of troublesome, 230; Greek, 234-240 ;
Hebrew, 241-247; German, 247254; computation of space occu-
pied by, 257, 258; maker-up responsible for justification of, 258 ; made square and solid in making up, 259, 260; how to amend fault in some kinds of, 275; cuts or narrow tables in, 282; locking up, 306-320; mechanical substitutes for hand, 897 et seg. See also Type-setting Compositors, material must exceed daily needs of, 3 (see also note), 4; working with insufficient light, 5;
for, 33; how to keep, in printing-
office, 33 (note). also Engravings, Illustrations, and Photo-engravings Cutting-machine, use of, 388 Cylinder-presses, use of patent uoins on, 297; how to place orms on, 826, 827; place of points for, 363 (note)
stands for supporting type cases of, 5 et seg.; hand-travel of, 14,
15; grouping of space boxes approved by, 27; helps to new, 29, 80, 37, 38; type-setting on piece by, 75 et seg.; effect of type-setting machines on employment of, 96, 97; reading of sticks by, 103, 104, 324; on setting of title-pages by, 112 et seg.; skill required by, for algebra, 171, 172; former diffi-
culties
of, on
table-work,
188;
music, 207, 208, 219, 224; casting
off of music by, 216-218; on foreign languages, 231, 232, 233 ; pencilled Greek extracts bewildering to modern, 234; study of Greek alphabet of service to, 236; Hebrew cases used by American, 245, 246; on German, 254; correction of proofs by, 323-325; distribution of unusual sorts by, 329. See also Job-printers and Printers Contents, setting of table of, 128, 129 Contractions. See Abbreviations Coptic,one or more fonts of, 232 (note) Copy, irregular or insufficient supply of, 3 (note) ; safe-keeping of, when out of use, 10; minor or extra sorts rarely called for by ordinary, 12; requiring roman and italic, accents and display letter, 22; preliminary examination of, 76, 77; short and long “ takes” of, 77; methods of handling, 77 et seq.; for title-pages, 112, 118, 121; paragraphs and sections in, 137;
Danish, marked vowels of, 30, 233 Dashes, freakish placing of, in type cases, 11; weight of, in font, 16; cases with unequal compartments needed for, 38; single, parallel,
and double, 55; ornamental,
55;
use of thin space on each side of,
89; spacing of, between short articles or paragraphs, 91, 92, 288 ; in title-pages, 125 Dates, in title-pages, 128, 124 Decoration, judicious and injudicious, 108, 109, 125; attempts at, by early priuters, 159; should be designed by qualified artist, 163 (note); on a large scale, 164 (note); old-time typographic, 167; books with, 168; bad lessons in, 169 (note); hackneyed, 170. See also Ornamentation Dedication, setting of, 127, 128 Designers, pen drawings of amateur, 169 (note)
Devices, labor-saving, 2 De Vinne, Theodore Low, dictionary stand and cases designed by, 23-27 Diacritical marks. _ See Accents Dickinson, Samuel Nelson, 231 -
Dictionaries, special stand and cases designed for, 23-27; side-headings of, 137; accents in, 232 Dictionary, Century. See Century Dictionary
Dictionary of the Art of Printing, 234 (note)
Index Didot,
Ambroise
fFirmin-,
safe
leadership of, 110; genealogical chart in work ’by, 228 (note)
Display, sizes of type useful for, 2;
letters needed for, often at inconvenient distance, Bs copy calling
for, 22; in title-pages, 115 et seq.;
bold, 167. See also Job-work
Distribution, hand-travel in, 15;
aids to cleaner, 21; safeguards against reckless, 29, 30, 87, 38; correct method’ of, 93-96 : set hours for, 100; disadvantage of shaking cases after, 101; standing
galley reserved for, 327 ; of leads, quadrats, and unusual sorts, 328, 329; process of, in Mergenthaler
machine, ¢422-424
Dovetails, 68
Drugulin, W., peiyeiot
printing-
house of, 232 (no Dummies, use of, ie printing, 346, 393, 394
Electrotype guards. See Guards Electrotypers, furniture preferred by, 68, 73; hair-line rules objectionable to, 143 (note); experiences of, with forms, 307 (note);
guards provided by, 318-320. See also Finishers
Electrotypes.
See Plates
Electrotyping, rules unsuitable for,
53, 64; hair-line rules for, should have blunt angles and high shoulders, 53; chases for, 291, 343, 344;
use of guards in, 318-320; preparing forms for, 366, 367, 387 Elzevir style, so-called, 167 Empire machine, 401
England, case of two parts favored
in, 14 (note); use of medieval initial letters in, 153; music published in, 208
English, absence of accented letters in ordinary, 232 Engravings, wood-, 140. See also Cuts, Illustrations, and Photo-engravings
Essai sur la Typographie, 228 (note) Estienne, Pierre, 228 (note Estienne family, genealogical chart of, 228 (note) Europe, printers of northern, 14
(note); machine patents granted n, 397
Extracts, types for, 77; spacing of, in text, 91, 92, 255, 268, 287; leading of, 187; short, in text, 137; approved practice of setting, 138 ;
467
new method of indicating, 188;
verbose, in appendix, 188; within
rules of hair-line face, 1388; begun
th plain two-line letter, 138;
driving out or getting in, when making up, 287. See also Quota-
Facs, French and English eighteenth-century, 165 Figures, increased supply of, some-
times "needed, 2; arrangement of, in type cases, ll, 12; reference-
marks supplanted by superior, 12; weight of, in font, 16; tray
cases for, 82; cases with unequal com artments needed for, 38; 92; complex tables of, 97; in display lines, 123, 124; old-style, 123, 136, 145; paging, 144-146, 149, 150, 261, 262; in algebra, 172, 173, 176, 177, 178 superior and ‘inferior, 174, 176, 179, 185; index, 184; spacing of tables of, in text, 91,
in tables, 191, 195 et seqg.; use of
arabic, in German, 252. See also
Numerals Fingering, correct keyboard, 447 et seq.
Finishers, plates in hands of, 74. See also Electrotypers Firmin-Didot. See Didot Flemish, accents used in, 2833
Folding-machines, different forms of, 332, 333, 348 (note), 359 (note 2),
362, 889-392
Fonts, large and small, 1,2; composition not economically done
with small, 3 (see also note), 4
scheme for, 16, 17; need of many
small, 35; music, 219; of many
faces and sizes, 232. See also Letters and Types
Foot-notes, types needed for, 1, 2;
placing of, 99, 277, 278, 279; set-:
ting of, 139. See also Notes’
Foot-sticks. See Side-sticks Forms, table of signatures and folios for different, 272, 273; making front margins for eight-page, 303 ; making tail margins for sixteen-page, 304; locking up, 306-
820; taking proofs of, 320, 321; cleaning, 321, 322 (see "also ‘note); inserting points in, 825, 326; printing of, on cylinder-presses, 826,
327; breaking up of, 327, 328; schemes of imposition grouped in four classes of, 335; rules controlling imposition of, 337, 338
468
Index
(see also note), adjusting margins of, for electrotyping, 366, 367. See also Imposition Formulas, algebraic, 176, 177, 178, 181-183, 185, 186, 187, 188 Fournier, Pierre-Simon, 234 (note)
Fractions, freakish placing,of in type cases, 11; rarely n
,12;5
Genealogies, composition of, 235-338 German, copy in, 231; accemts used in, 233; alphabet of, 247-249: cases for composition of, 250, 351 (see also note); double letters in, 250; umlaut over vowels in, 351; capitalization of, 251; divisive
weight of, in font, 16; in book-
work, 18; combining of, in alge-
Franklin, Benjamin, 1
French, copy in, 231; accents used n, Furniture, wood and metal, 2, 62, 63 ; old and new forms of, 5; chase, 63; orderly storage of, 64 et seq., 289; metal preferable to wood, 70, 71, 316, 317; combination metal, 71, 72; for gutters of back margins, 256; how to prevent needless cutting of, 257; pages protected by stoneman with, 259; effect of moisture upon wooden, 288; proper distinguished from improper use of, 309, 310; retightening of quoins in forms with wooden, 318; guards of metal, 319 ; removal of, from forms, 327 ; when to select and put in place, 342 (note), 343; fitting new forms with, 345 (note), 395; shrinkage of, 352. See also Side-sticke (see also Furniture-cabinet, 67 note)-70 (see also note) Furniture-drawers, 64, 66, 68, 70, 289, 290
Furniture-racks, 65, 66, 70, 71, 72
Galley-racks, quadrat cases made to rest upon, 34; purpose of, 41; with swinging arms, 41; with fixed arms, 41; with inclined shelves, 42
Galleys, 2; stands made with supports for, 7; broad standing and movable, 8; placed underneath cases, 10, 26; description and use of, 39; wood, brass, and slice, 39, 40, 290; description and purpose of standing, 42, 43; proving of, 80 et seg.; type read and corrected on, 256; of composed type, 257; materials for making up should he
pieced on small, 258 ; quarto, with w rim, preferred for making up, 288; justifying on, 324; standing, yeserved for distribution, 327
@naetteers, side-headings of, 137
Germany, fantastic borders in fashion in, 108; medieval initial letters frequently. used in, 153; use of roman character in, 253 Goodson Graphotype, 402 Gothic, legend lines in, 281 Greek, cases for composition of, 38 ; aid to correct distribution of, 95 ; use of, in algebra, 173 (mote); copy in, 231; breathings of, 233 (note),
236; alphabet of, 234, 235; working font of, 234 (see also note); accents of, 236; cases for composition of, 237; rules for placing accents in, 238; different faces of, 239 Greeley, Horace, 463 Gregory, St., 219 Guards, electrotype, sectional cases for, 31; description and use of, 73, 74, 816, 318-320 . Gutters, 63, 64 (see also note), 71, 256, 257, 274, 310
Half-diamond indention. See Jnion denti Half-titles, setting of parts and, 130 (see also mote), 131. See also Titles and Title-pages Hand-presses, taking proofs on,
320; presswork done on, 336, 337, 344 (note); usual place of points for, 363 (note)
Hand-work, contrasted with machine-work, 96, 97; proper methods of, 97 ef seq. Hanging indention. Seb Lndention Harper, James, 75 ; Head-bands, on use of, 159-167, 168 Head-bolts, 63, 64, 71, 310, 347, 364 Heading-chases. See Chases Headings. See Chapter headings, Side-headings, and Subheadings Hebrew, cases for composition of, 38; aid to correct distribution of, 95; copy in, 231; alphabet of, 241, 242; points as guides to pronunciation of, 242, 243; accents and Masoretic points or vowels
Index of, 243, 244; Shevas used in, 245; read from right to left, 245, 393;
cases for composition of, 245, 246;
words in, cannot be divided, 247 Hempel quoin, 296, 297 . Hints on Imposition (Williams’s). lifting device described in, 291 (note) History of the Origin of Printing, 278 (note)
Holy Scriptures.
See Bible
Houghton, Henry Q., 111 Hungarian, accerts used in, 233 Hyphens, use of thin space on each
side of, 88 ; in German, 252; faulty use of, 276
Tliad, Pickering’s (note)
edition
of, 239
Illuminators, fifteenth-century, 159 Illustrations, electrotyped, 32; furnishing of, 80, 81; text led down at side of, 90; relief of white needed by, 106; setting of table of, 129, 130; testing of, 140, 141; placing of, 141, 284-286, 287; of running titles, 264-267, 268, 269 ; placing of, in pages, 276, 277; legend lines of, 280-282 (see also note 1); of irregular shape, 283, 284; wood-blocking of electrotype, 288; moulding of, 318; scheme for printing, 361, 362. See also Cuts, Engravings, and Photo-engravings
Image, Selwyn, Greek type designed by, 239, 240 Imperial Printing House, Vienna, 232 (note)
Imposing-stone, 2; dimensions of, 67; made-up pages on, 274; use of, in composing-room, 289; many sizes of, 289, 290; should he cleaned before pages are laid down, 306; flat side of quoins should rest upon, 311; types too
tightly locked up spring from, 312, 318; correcting and justifying on, 324; preparatory’ work on, 325; fitting of chase-rack under, 330
Imposing-table. See Imposing-stone Imposition, adjusting margins in, 297-306; locking up, 306-320; elementary principles of, 331-337; four pages in two forms and two
chases, 337; four pages in one chase, 338; four pages in one chase, long way, 339; four pages in one chase, imposed from centre,
469
339 ; sixty-four pages in one chase, four sections of sixteen, 341; circular of two pages only, the print on first and third pages, 345; inset folio of twenty pages in ten forms, 346 ; legal folio of four pages, 347 ; legal folio of sixteen pages, imposed for insets, 348; eight pages in one form, music or oblong way, 348; eight pages in usual way, . 349; eight pages imposed from centre, 349; eight pages in two sections of four, known as “two on,” 349; eight-page. forms in three chases, inset to make one section of twenty-four pages, 350 ;
eight pages, two wide, four high,
351; eight pages for offcut of paper, 351; sixteen pages in two chases for one section, 351; sixteen pages, imposed from centre, 353; sixteen pages as usually laid, 353; sixteen pages as two sections of eight, 354; sixteen pages in two portions of eight for inset, 364; sixteen pages in two sections of twelve and four, 355; sixteen pages in three sections, one of eight and two of four pages, 356; sixteen oblong pages, music way, one section, 356 ; thirty-two pages in two chases, to fold as one section, 357; thirty-two pages in two forms, separately folded and inset as one section, 358; thirty-two pages as four sections of eight
pages each, 359; ninety-six pages in one chase, six sections of six-
teen, 360 ; one hundred and twenty-eight pages in one chase, eight sections of sixteen, 361; twelve pages in one chase, 363; twenty-
four pages in two chases, as one section, 365; twelve pages in one chase, triplicates of four pages, 368; twelve pages of oblong shape, no inset, central imposition, 369; twenty-four pages, oblong shape, inset of eight, 370; twenty-four pages in one chase, with offcut of eight inset as one section, 871; twenty-four pages in one chase, two sections of twelve, offcuts separately folded and inset, 371; twenty-four pages on square sheet, with offcut of eight inset as one section, 372; twenty-four pages on square shape of sheet, two sections of twelve, 378; forty-eight pages in one chase, three sections
Index
470
of sixteen, square shape of paper, 874; seventy-two pages in one chase, six sections of twelve, 376; eighteen pages in one chase, for one section, 377; eighteenmo fold
of sixteen pages only, one leaf
cancelled, 379; thirty-six pages in two chases, three sections of twelve, 880; seventy-two pages in one chase, three sections of twenty-four, 381; twenty pages in one chase as one section, 382; twenty pages in one chase as one section without transposition, 388; forty
pas ages in one chase, one section, nset of eight, 384; "six.pose leaf-
lets in strip one page
high, 385;
ten-page leaflet, two pages ‘high,
caniais tals of, 142; use of, in algetitles in lower-case and in
bra, 173 (see also note); for infe-
rior letters, or subscripts,
184;
avoided in German, 252; different sizes and faces of, for running titles, 262, 263; unsuitable for side-notes, 279; legend lines in, 1
Jacobi, Charles T., treatise of, on
printing, 14 (note)
Jacobs, Joseph, 228 (note)
J ob-printers, special cases provided for, 35; composing-rules of, usu-
ally of brass, 46; very thin spaces
used by, 87. _ See also Composttors
and Printer.
886; eight pages in quadruplicate, Job-stick. See Composing-stick or a four on,” 387; study of," made Job-work, furniture-rack devised for, 70; certain kinds of, 167; needlessly repelling, Imprint, black- letter’ aot suitable locking’ up and correcting madefor, 112
(note);
broadest blank
above, in title-pages, 114
Indention, use and omission of, 92,
93, 104, 105; half-diamond ‘and hanging, in title-pages, 127; in
chapter headings, 132; of aynopsis, 133; of index, 147; of
poetry,
149, 150; half-diamond, or le-
gends, 281 Index, for cuts, 38 setting of, 147, 1
paging of, 146;
Initials, plain, 2;Sut of place in title-pages, 120, 126; on use of,
151-159, 160, 161, 163, 167, 168 Ink, removal of, from face of type, 321, 822 (see also note); tends to collect at ends of inking-rollers, 339 (note) Ink-table, 81
Insets. See Imposition Introduction, setting of, 133, 134
Irish, alphabet of, 233 (note)
Italian, copy in, 231; accents used in, 233
Italic, increased supply of, sometimes needed, 2; often, when re-
quired, at inconvenient distance,
5; weight of, in font, 16; copy requiring two or more sizes of,
play of, 289.
See also Dis-
Justification, Petition for, 15; JO nson Tachyt
spaces repeatedly changed {n, 21;
of algebraic work, 34; slight un-
evenness iu, 55; "importance of exact, 86 (see also note), 87, 306,
316, 317; time-wasting, 171; by
gauges, 193, 194; of genealogical charts, 228 ; mischie produced
by loose or careless, 312, 316, 317. See also Spacing
Kelmscott books, 159. See also Morris, William Keyboard, correct fingering of, 447 et seq.
Languages, accents and signs re-
quired in foreign, 2 Lanston machine, 402 Latin, copy in, 231 Law cases, 1 Lead-cutters, 58, 59
Leaders, weight ‘of, in font, 16; tray cases for, 31, 32: cases with unequal compartments needed for,
88 et seq. 22; accent case for, 30; unifor- Leading, spacing and, mity in use of, 77; lower-case of, Lead-rack, new form ‘of, 60, 61 tolerated atyle for title-pages, Leads, 2; case for, 343 high and low, 35: cases with unequal com111; for long dedication, 128; for
long synopsis, 133; for preface, 133; for subheadings, 135, 136; for side-headings, 136; occasionally selected for pvetry, 138; unsuitable for side-notes, 139; run-
partments needed for, 38; description, use, and sizes of, 56, 57
(see also notes); different methods of keeping, 57-59, 61; should be ordered with system, 60, 91;
Index weight of, required in book-house, 60; should never be pieced, 61, 62; addition or withdrawal of, 258; of different thicknesses, 258; difficulty of locking up forms full of
471
side-stitching of, 384 (note), 892; folding-machines for, 390 Make-up. See Making up Maker-up, compact arrangement of cases an advantage to, 10; duties
thin, 315, 316.
of, 78 et seg. 99, 182, 141, 146, 260,
of, 385, 386
should have a diagram, 255, 299, 302, 342 (note); gauge used by, 256; measuring and marking off by, 257; responsible for justification of composition, 258; should have ready access to needed materials,
Leafieta, description and imposition Letter-boards, racks for stowing, 43; should have raised rim at extreme end, 48; pages on, 84; type for distribution on, 93, 327, 328 Letterpress, rules most useful for
52, 68; low leads used for, 56; full form of, 257
Letters, small fonts of two-line capital, 2; spaces furnished with font of, 15, 16; weight of, in font, 16; double, 19; spacing of capital, 90; dense huddling of capital, 106; uncouth, 107 (see also note); pinched, 120; condensed, for cutin notes, 139; initial, 151-159; in algebra, 172, 173; superior and inferior, 173 (note), 174, 176, 184. See also Capitals, Characters,
Small capitals, and Types
Linotype,
Mergenthaler, 403 et seq.
Linotype operator, how to become
an expert, 426, 427, 433, 445 ef
Litevature, Bidpai, Pedigree of, 226, seq.
227, 228 (see also note) Locking up, how to acquire skill in, 306-320
London, music published in, 208 Lower-case, weight and proportion of, in font, 16, 17; proposed case for capitals and, 19; arrangement of case for capitals, small capitals, and, 22; job cases for capitals and, 28; spacing of capitals and, 90; table of contents in roman, 128; for chapter synopsis, 133; cut-in notes in smal] sizes of, 189; running titles in italic, 142, 262, 268; small-sized, for running titles, 143; roman, for cut-in notes, 280; legend lines in roman and in italic, 281 Lye, boiling, 84 (note), 94, 322 Machines. ing names
See the various qualify-
Machine-work, contrasted with hand-work, 96, 97 Mackellar, Thomas, 289 Macmillan Company, 239 McMillan machine, 401 Magazines, subheadings of, 107;
262, 269,
274, 277, 280, 286, 330;
258; copy and proof should be continually before, 260; amendment of fault by, 275 Making up, not paid for by piece, 76; methods of, 78 et seq.; diagram needed in, 255; gauge for, 256;
quarto galley with low rim preerred for, 258; tying up page in, 258, 259; duties included in, 260; of chapters, 268, 269 (see also
note); one of the modern methods
of, 283; of pages in two colors, 288; a study without end, 288; correct stone-work dependent on exact, 306; search for faults in, 317 Mallet, description and use of, 295, 296, 297 ; improper use of, 311, 312, 313; first strokes of, should be light, 315; should not be laid on face of form, 324 Mannerisms, recent, in typography, 104 et seq. Manuel Typographique, 234 (note) Manuscript, tables in, 202; setting
genealogical charts from, 228, 229;
n Greek, 234; in German, 254, See also Copy Marchand, Prosper, 278 (note) Marginal sheet. See Pattern sheet Margins, adjustment of, 297-306, 332 (note), 342 (note), 345 (note), 347,
848, 364, 366, 367, 385, 386, 392, 394, 3 5
Matrices, linotype, 404 et seq.; treatment of, 429, 430 Mechanick Exercises, 14 (note) Melting-pot, treatment of, 428, 429, 433, 434
Mergenthaler Linotype machine, 403 et seq.; learning to operate, 426, 427; management of, 427, 428; temperature of metal, 428, 429; treatment of matrices, 429, 430; treatment of spaces or justifiers,
431, 482; cleaning, 482, 433; the melting-pot, 438, 434; the mould, 485; the mould disk, 435, 436; cau-
472 t
key
fing
, 446;
, 447 et seq.
sheets, 257; new styles of foldingmachines for, 333; side-stitching of, 334 (note), 375, 378 (note), 392;
Monotype. See Lanston machine Morris, William, disciples of, 1065; title-page of, 125; odd initials designed by, 159; composition in style of, 262 (note 2) Motto, placing of, in title-pages, 124, 125 (see also note); improved method of setting, 287 Mould, treatment of, 435, 436 Moulding, use of guards or bearers in, 318-320 Moulding-press, pressure of, 344 Moxon, Joseph, upper case shown by, 14 (note) Munsell, Joel, 331
Music, cases for, 38; setting of books of, 97; on the composition of, 207-225; imposition of pages of, 348
National Printing House, Paris, 232 (note)
Newspapers, weekly, 1; form of composing-stick preferred on, 44, 45; imposing-stone for making
up, 289; twin chases preferred for ordinary weekly, 291, 292; locking up, 317
Notes, types for, 77; side- and cutin, 90, 97, 139, 140, 279, 280; leading of, 137; setting of, 139, 140; long, 276, 277, 278; placing of, 278, 279. See also Foot-notes and Side-notes
Numerals, roman, in lines of capitals, 123, 124; for parts and half-titles, 130, 131; paging with, 134. See also Figures
Odyssey, Pickering’s edition of, 239 (note)
Offcuts. See Imposition Old English. See Black-letter Old-style, complete series of, 2 Operator, how to become an expert, 06, 426, 427, 433, 445 et seq.
Oriental languages, fonts of, 232(note) fondness Ornamentation, unwise for, 108, 109; profuse, 169 (see alsu note). See also Decoration Outsets. See Lmposition
centre-stitching of, 340 (mote 2),
384, 396; small, Books Panels, title-pages in, 108, 1296 Paper, sizes of, used in book-work, 297-306, 370 (note), 372, 374, 377 (see also note), 383, 394; for
proofs, 323;
sizes and strange
shapes of, 331; how to utilize offcuts of, 351; how to prevent or lessen buckling of, 3&5, 357 ; handmade, 364; smooth-edged, 364 Paragraphs, print made more readable by, 78; the spacing of dashes between, 92; the indention of, 92, 93; numbered or lettered, 136; the overrunning of, 324 (see also note)
Parentheses, in algebra, 173, 178, 179, 180, 185, 186 Pattern sheet, for adjusting margins, 297-306, 342 (note) Pedigree of Bidpai Literature, 226, 227, 228 (see also note) Pedigrees, composition of, 225-230 Periodicals. See Magazines Photo-engravings, paper for, 140 (note); typography and, 230; halftone, 318; cleaning of, 322 (see also note). See also Cuts, Engravings, and [llustrations Pi, making of, 104 Pickering, William, safe leadership of, 110; edition of Iliad and Odyssey hy, 239 (note)
Piece-fractions, in algebra, 174 Piece-hands, composition done by, 75, 76 Planer, description and use of, 295: proper distinguished from improper use of, 311-313, 315, 317
Plantin, Christopher, large initials of, 158 Plates, electrotype, 53, 54, 55; pamphlets and books printed from, 73; etched by photo-engraving process, 140, 141; type off its feet a cause of faulty, 260; uneven electrotype, 306; use of guards in moulding, 318-320; adjusting margins for, 366, 367
Index Poetry, setting of, 148-151; making up of, 286 Points, increased supply of, sometimes needed, 2; arrangement of, in type cases, 11, 12; boxes for, 15; weight of, in font, 16; should
be in groups in lower case, 19 Points, in presswork, 325, 326, 340 (note 1), 363 (note), 390, 391
Point system, type bodies measured by, 1, 2, 171; brass rules rolled to conform to, 47, 171; value of, in
algebraic composition, 181 Polhemus, John, double stand designed by, 7-9, 10 Polish, accents used in, 233 Porson, Richard, Greek type de-
signed by, 239, 240 Portuguese, accents used in, 233 Preface, setting of, 133, 134 Press, moulding, 73, 74 Pressmen, not always responsible for imperfect printing of brass rules, 54; aid to, in making ready, 87; hair-line rules objectionable to, 143 (note); how to aid, in making register, 288; margins regulated by, 302, 345 (note); preparing forms for, 308, 309; treatment of forms by careful, 315 (note), 318; advantages of half-sheet work to, 337 (note); use of dummy as guide by, 346 Press-room, needs of, 79 Presswork, needless delay and trouble in, 54; preparing form for, 315 (note); use of points in, 325, 326, 340 (nole 1), 363 (note), 390, 391; sheetwise, 336, 337 (see also note); half-sheet, 337 (note), 342; how to save extra, 355 Print, use of paragraphs in, 78
Printers, master, 3; of northern Europe, 14 (note); names used by, to designate brass rules, 47; their contracts with publishers, 75, 76; undervaluation by, 80; the methods of early, 127; some attempts at decoration by early, 159; the facs made by French and English, 165; the hackneyed decorations of, 170; schemes of imposition from the graminars of, 331. See also Compositors and Jobprinters
Printing, proper equipment for, 1, 2;
rude types that deform, 108;
masterpieces of, 168; adjustment of margins in, 297-306; locking up
forms for, 306-320; sheetwise, 336,
473
337 (see also note).
See also T'y-
pography Printing-houses, equipment of, 1 e¢ seq.; supply of type must largely exceed demand in, 3; cabinet case for cuts, with index, needed in, 33; many faces of roman types provided by, 96; style code of, 99; characters needed for miscellaneous book-work in, 282; making up in, 256 (see also note); adjustment of margins in, 297-306
Printing-machines,
See
Printing-
presses
Printing-presses, pressure of, 54; chases made to suit, 290; chases used as substitute for furniture on bed of, 294; quoins loosened by jarring of, 318; rotary, 332, 352, 362
Prints, tipping on of, 334 (note) Proof-paper, 81, 82 Proof-planer, 83, 205; taking proofs with, 320, 321 Proof-press, 82 Proof-readers, corrections by, 76,
83; copy and proof 321; proof returned
passed to, 80, to composi-
tors by, 83, 323; other duties of, 84; second reading by, 84, 85; revising and querying by, 324, 325; dummy of service to, 346; reckoning with, on linotypes, 449, 459
Proof-reading, not paid by piece, 76 Proofs, taking and 320-327
correction of,
Fropagands Fide, Rome, 282 (note)
Publishers, contracts of, with employing printers, 75, 76; under-
valuation by, 80; changes in proof by, 85; capricious taste of authors and, 96; real sponsors of books, 108; roman capitals preferred for title-pages by, 111; ornamental types in running titles not acceptable to, 262; instructions from, concerning margins, 298, 300, 301 Punctuation, in type-setting, 99
Quadrats, increased supply of, sometimes needed, 2; arrangement of, in type cases, 11, 12; weight of, in font, 16, 20; irregular use of large, 21; tray cases for, 32; case for spaces and, 34; common form of case for, 35; preferred for electrotyping, 73, 74; preferable to leads for blanks, 92, 262; of different bodies, 258; with nicks, 259; use of, to make form solid, 316;
-
Index
474
best electrotype plates made from types set with high, 319. Abbre-
viated Quads
Quoins, 63, 64, 293 et seq.;
patent,
296, 997, 813, 317, 318; selection of, 306; proper distinguished from improper use of, 309, 311; pro-
viding even resistance to pressure of, 313, 344; tightening of, 314,
315;
advantage
wood, 316;
of patent over
slackening
of, 317;
retightening of, 318; removal of, from forms, 327
Quotation-marks, uniformity in use of, 77; for short extracts or quotations in text, 137; old fashion of using, 137, 138; single, 150; placing of, 150; in German, 252 Quotations, forms of metal furniture, 72, 73, 258, 316
Quotations, or extracts, short, in
text, 137; long, 286; driving out
or getting in, when making up,
ae improved method of setting, 28
Racks, 2, 6, 7, 10; availability of
sorts in, 18, 19; with supports, 23, 26; for ‘galleys, 34; for leads, 34; job cases fitted to, 35; under standing galleys, 43; for chases, 289
and faces of, for running titles,
262; legend lines i n, 281
Booker, homas N., case invented by, 15, 23
Rule. See Composing-rule Rules, brass, 2; tray cases used for,
31, 32; case of four sections for, 34, 35; cases with unequal compartments needed for, 38; usually furnished in strips two feet long, 46 ; rolled to conform to bodies of oe system, 47,171; names used
printers to desi nate, 47; faces
of, most used
k-work, 47;
bevelled or at-taced, 47, 53; mitring and proper joining of, 48; labor-saving, 48, 49, 64, 188; cut-
ting and testing of, 49; cases for labor-saving, 49-52: lain faces of, now more needed than flowers or borders of type-metal, 51; should be bought from same foundry, 52; for letterpress work, 52, 53; in electrotyping, 58, 54; in
composition and presswork, 54;
made of type-metal, 55; uneven
justification prevents joining of mitred, 87;
panels of, 108, 126,
Readers. See Proof-readers Reading-room, needs of, 79. See also Proof-readers and Proof-reading Reference-marks, freakish placing of, in type cases, 11; supplanted by superior figures, 12; weight of, in font, 16; in book-work, 18; for long notes, 276; of notes should correspond to those in text, 278 Register, how to insure accurate, 292, 325, 326, 344, 360, 367, 391, 392; makeshift aid to exact, 307; shrinkage of furniture an obstacle
Rumanian,
Reglet-case, labor-saving, 66, 67 Reglet-rack, 67 Reglets, 63, 65, 67, 68, 297
Ruskin, John, on use of black and white, 106 Russian, one or more fonts of, 232
to, 352
Reprints, plain, 1; atrict, 83, 276
Revisers, method followed by, 83 325
Rollers, how to keep, 323; tendency of ink to collect at ends of, 339 (note)
Roman, variations from standard of modern, 2; copy requiring two or more sizes of, 22; accent case for, 30; many faces of, needed by large printing-houses, 96; lower-
es |
case of, tolerated style for titlepages, 111; table of contents in lower-case of, 128; capitals of, for running titles, 142; use of, in algebra, 173 (note); different sizes
169 (note); ‘parallel or ‘double, as
head-bands, 165; combining of, in algebra, 172, 174, 175 (see also
note); use of, in tables, 190 et seq.;
sometimes used for bars in music composition, 218; in genealogies
and pedigrees, 295 ; of graduated length, 258; cuts surrounded by, 285 ; difficulty of lockingup forms containing, 315, 316; use of bits of flat-faced, as collating-marks, 389 (note)
accents
used
in,
233
(note)
Sanskrit, one or more fonts of, 232 (note)
Savage, William, 234 (note) Saxon, alphabet of, 233 (note) Schemes. See Imposition School-books, long and short accents used in, 30
Scriptures, Holy. See Bible Sections, cutting, folding, gather-
Index ing, and sewing of, in book-work,
339-887, 340 (see also note 2), 342,
362, 365, 366, 368, 375, 376, 385, 386-
890, 398, 396. See also Imposition Sheet. See Pattern sheet Shooting-sticks, 87, 290, 295, 296, 297, 311, 315, 324
Side-headings, types for, 2, 136, 137; setting of, 136, 137 Side-notes, types needed for, 1, 2, 139; setting of, 189; placing of, 279; type and measure of, 279; abbreviations, etc., in, 279. See also Notes Side-sticks, 68, 64, 202, 295, 296, 306, 809, 310, 311, 313, 816, 317, 344. See also Furniture Signatures, use of, as guides to bookinders, 269-271; table of, 272, 278; at tail of sheet, 346. See also Imposition Signs, in book-work, 18; proper placing of astronomical and other. 29; tray cases used for, 31; ai to correct distribution of, 95; algebraic, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178,
188, 184, 185, 186; music, 207
Simplex machine, 400, 401
Slitters, description and adjustment of, 391, 392
Slugs, cutting of, 59; nonpareil and thicker, 62; linotype, 403, 405, 408, 423, 424, 425
Small capitals, types without, 14 (note); weight of, in font, 16; discarded in many books and newspapers, 18; case for lower-case, capitals, and, 22; line of capitals and, not pleasing in title-page, 120; for dedication, 127 ; for table of contents, 128; for chapter synopsis, 182; for subheadings, 135, 136; for side-headings, 136; for running titles, 142, 262, 263; for
legend lines, 280, 281. See also Capitals and Letters Smashing-machine, use of, 388 Sorts, orders for, 2; minor, 12; ex-
tra, 12, 13; scheme of, in font, 16, 17; weight of lower-case, 20; proper placing of minor, 29 ; small cases for orderly keeping of irreg-
ular, 38; additional, 76, 77 (see also note); distribution of unusual, 328; treatment of, when in lim-
ited supply, 329
Southward, John, treatise of, on practical printing, 14 (note) Space-rules, 56 Spaces, arrangement of, in type
4795
cases, 11, 12; bcxes for holding, 15; most needed, 16; weight of, in font, 16, 20; grouping of boxes for, 27, 87; case for quadrats and, 34; best electrotype plates made from types set with’ high, 319; justifying, 324; linotype, 404 et eg. treatment of linotype, 431, 43
Spacing, facilities for even, 15; even, 21; and leading, 88 et seq.; of poetry, 148; of algebra, 171, 176; prevention of uneven, 284. See also Justification Spanish, copy in, 231; accents used in, 233
Specimen -books, 156, 159
type- founders’,
Square, use of, in stone-work, 307,
315 Stands, for supporting type cases, 4
et seq.; availability of sorts in racks under, 18, 19; old-fashioned, 22; made for composition of Century Dictionary, 23-27 Stephens. See Estienne Stereotyping, chases for, 291 Sticks. See Composing-stick, Shooting-sticks, and Side-sticks Stone. See lmposing-stone Stoneman, adjustment of margins by, 297-306, 342 (note), 345 (note);
square and straight-edge needed
by, 307; should lock up type continuously and slowly, 315; form with mitred brass-rule borders needs extra care by, 316; effect of non-use of electrotype guards by, 319; cleaning of type by, 321, 322; clearing away of dead matter by, | 327-330; use of dummy as guide for, 346
Stone-work, not paid for by piece, ; 76; in American book-houses, 80 adjustment of margins, 297-306 ; locking up, 306-320. See also Jmposition Straight-edge, use of, in stone-work,
307, 315; trimming proofs with, 321
Subheadings, types for, 2, 77, 135,
136, 255; in panels, 108; setting of, 135, 186; of prominence, 167 ; driving out or getting in, when making up, 287
Subscripts, in algebra, 184, 185 Swedish, marked vowels of, 30, 233 ‘‘ Swift,” how to become a, 447 et seq.
Synopsis, should not run over on
Index
476
by, 48, 49; guards provided by, 73, 74; uncouth letters of, 107 (see
following page, 131 (note); setting of, 132, 133 Syriac, one or more fonts of, 232
(note)
System.
also note); old-style figures remodelled by, 145; Morris's odd initials reproduced by American, 159; engraved head-bands of, 164;
See Point system
Tables, rules most useful for, 52, 53; types for, 77; spacing of, in text, 91, 92, 282; complex, 97; of contents, 128, 129; of illustrations, 129, 130; on the composition of, . 188-207; of irregular size, 276, 277; of full, broad measure, 285, 286; of signatures and folios for different forms, 272, 273; locking up forms containing, 315, 316 Tail-pieces, on the use of, 159 et seq. Text, type bodies for larger sizes of, 2; led down at side of illustrations, 90; spacing of extracts and tables in, 91, 92; leading of, 137; inclosed with notes at top, side, and foot, 280 Thomas, Isaiah, 39 Thorne machine, 398 Time-hands, composition done by, 75, 76; distribution by, 328, 329 Time-tables, crowded setting of,
8, 200
Title-pages, two-line capital letters for, 2; borders needed for composition of, 32; general effect of, 91; judicious decoration of, 108; roman capitals of regular form preferred for, 111, 112; on the setting of, 112 et seq.; filled with flourishes or divided into panels, 169 (note). See also Hal/-titles Titles. See Title-pages Titles, running, 142-144, 149, 2565, 258, 260-269
Treadle-presses, small forms on, 386
Treatises, accents and signs required in scientific, 2; on law, theology, or science, 167; on algebra, 172, 175; accents in elocutionary, 232 Turkish, borders in style known as, 167; one or more fonts of, 232 (note)
Tweezers, description and use of, 46, 323 (see also note)
Type-casting nachines. See Lanston and Mergenthaler Type-closet, proper method of storing type in, 328, 329 Type-founders, schemes of, not exactly alike, 16 (note 1); sectional cases furnished by, 31; brass rules designated by arbitrary numbers
of, 47; labor-saving rule furnished
by, 167; algebraic signs furnished by, 172; music fonts of American, 219; accents furnished by American, 233; German, 253 Type-foundries, orders for ‘* sorts “ from, 2; old-established English, 233 (note) Type-metal, flowers and borders of, 51; rules made of, 55; furniture of, 62; electrotype guards made from, 318 7 Type-racks. See Racks Types, fonts of, for all kinds of book composition, 1, 2; supply of, must exceed daily needs of compositors, 3 (see also note), 4; stands for supporting cases of, 4 et seg.; without small capitals, 14 (note); analysis of font of, 16, 17; petty fonts of display, 29; for title-pages and publishers’ circulars, 32, 111 et seg.; need of many small fonts of display, 35; similar styles of, to be grouped together, 35; caseracks for display, 36, 37; large and heavy forms of, 64; pamphlets and books printed from, 73; selfspacing, 87 ; justification of large, 87; spacing and leading of, 88 et seq.; correct method of setting, 97 et seqg.; over-wide spacing of single, 107; condensed, in titlepages, 115, 120; for dedication, 127, 128; for table of contents, 128, 129; for parts and half-titles, 130, 131; for chapter headings, 131, 182 ; for chapter synopsis, 132, 133 ; .
borders now provided
decorations of, 169 (note);
for preface and introduction, 133, 184; for subheadings, 135, 136; for side-headings, 186, 137 ; for notes, 189, 140; for appendix, 147; for index, 147, 148; subheadings, rules, or propositions in bold, 167 ; odd, 168; plain, 168; eccentric, 169; cast upon irregular and unmatable bodies, 171; made on point system, 171; music, 207, 208 ; diamond and excelsior music, 225; Greek, 234-240; Hebrew, 241247; German, 247-253; for running titles and subheadings, 255 ; galleys of composed, 257; made
Index up off their feet, 259, 260; for running titles, 262; should not be made up while wet or even damp, 288; locking up composed, 290, 291 (gee also note), 292, 306-320; bottled, 313; cleaning of, 321, 322; distribution and storage of dead, 327-380; furniture must be ac-
commodated to chase and, 3965.
See also Antique, Capitals, Gothic, Initials, Italic, Letters, Lowercase, Roman, and Small capitals Type-setters. See Compositors, Jobprinters, and Printers Type-setting, regulating price of, 75, 76; literary side of, 76 (note);
punctuation in, 99; close-spaced
and solid, 105, 106; tables require more skill] than plain, 189; genea-
logical charts unlike all other forms of, 228. See also Composition Type-setting machines, development of, 96, 397 et seg. See also the various qualifying names Typography, recent mannerisms in, 104 et seqg.; reformers of, 110; a novelty of reformed, 145 (note);
477
of books should agree with subject-matter, 167; of good editions should be studied, 170; photo-engraving and, 230. See also Printing
United States, working in companionship no longer practised in, 80. See also America University Press, Oxford, England, 232 (note)
Vinculum, in algebra, 183, 184 Wax, moulding, 53, 73, 74, 318, 319
Welsh, accents used in,
Westcott, C. S., machine invented by, 402
Whittingham, Charles, safe leadership of, 110 Willems, Alphonse, 228 (note)
Williams, T. B., device of, to aid in lifting large forms of type, 291 (note)
Woodcuts. See Cuts, Engravings, and Illustrations Writers. See Authors
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